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Copyright 1^'. 



CflROlIGHT DEPOSIT. 



MACE-BOGARDUS 
SCHOOL HISTORY 



M ACE-BOG ARDUS 

SCHOOL HISTORY 



By 
WILLIAM H. MACE 

Former Professor of History in Syracuse University, Author of 
Mace's School Histories and "Method in History" 

and 

FRANK S. BOGARDUS 

Professor of History and Economics in the Indiana 
State Normal 




RAND McNALLY & COMPANY 

CHICAGO NEW YORK 



' /' 60 



Copyright, igzo, by 
Rand McNally & Company 



IV1K7 




DEC 20 1920 



0)CU605058 



THE CONTENTS 

PAGE 

A List of the Maps xi 

The Preface xiii 

CHAPTER 

I. Europe Accidentally Finds America i 

The People of Europe Just before Columbus i 

Europe's Knowledge of Distant Lands 4 

Columbus Seeks India and Finds America 6 

Other Nations Try Their Fortunes . . ' 9 

Spain Leads in Exploration 10 

France a Rival of Spain 13 

England Spain's Rival too 14 

IL The Land and the People of Early America .... 17 
Natural Advantages and Disadvantages in Settling North 

America 17 

How the Indian Helped and Hindered the Settlers . . .19 

III. The Southern Colonies 23 

Making Experiments • 23 

Getting a Foothold 25 

Virginia, the King's Colony 27 

Maryland, a New Kind of Colony 30 

The Two Carolinas, the Home of Many Kinds of People . 32 

Georgia, the Real Barrier 35 

IV. New England Colonies 37 

The Pilgrim Fathers 37 

The Massachusetts Bay Colony 40 

Outside Danger Threatens 43 

New Hampshire and Maine 46 

Connecticut and New Haven 46 

Rhode Island the Most Democratic Colony ..'... 48 

V. The Middle Colonies 50 

The Struggle of the Dutch to Plant a Colony .... 50 

EngHsh Rule in New York 53 

New Sweden or Delaware 55 

New Jersey 56 

Pennsylvania the Great Quaker Colony 57 

V 



vi THE CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VI. The Ways of Colonial Life 63 

The People 63 

Home Life and Pastimes 70 

Colonial Education 74 

Religious and Moral Life . 79 

Industry and Commerce 83 

How the Colonies Were Governed -93 

VII. The Battle for North America 95 

The Rise of New France 95 

Their First Conflicts 98 

The Great Struggle 99 

The Meaning of the Victory 105 

VIII. Separation from England and Union among the Colonies 107 

Reasons for the Revolution 107 

The Americans Begin to Fight 116 

IX. The Struggle for the Rights of Man 122 

Separation from England 122 

The British Try to Break the Power of the Middle States . 125 

How France Came to Our Aid 129 

Irregular Warfare 134 

War in the West and South I35 

Woman's Part in the Revolution 146 

X. The Need for a Stronger Government 149 

An Experiment in State Sovereignty 149 

Efforts for a Stronger Government 152 

Constitutional Convention 155 

The States Ratify the Constitution I57 

Important Points in the Constitution 160 

XI. The Beginnings of the Nation 165 

The American People (1790- 1 800) 165 

Washington the First President 174 

Origin of Our Foreign Policy 177 

Home Problems Again 180 

XII. The Republican Party in Power 184 

Jefferson in Control (180 1 -9) 184 

Peopling the West 185 

Troubles with Foreign Nations Again 192 

XIII. War of 1812 196 

War for Freedom of Commerce 196 



THE CONTENTS Vll 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIV. The Coming of a New Time 204 

Western Migration and Internal Improvements . . . 204 

The Old States Feel the Touch of Life 211 

New States Introduce New Questions 213 

Latin America and the Monroe Doctrine 218 " 

The West Begins to Influence Politics 220 

XV. Social Changes 230 

Changes in the Manner of Living 230 

The Final Struggle to Keep the Balance of Power . . . 233 

Educational Changes 237 

The First Signs of a National Literature 240 

An Era of Moral Reform 242 

The Growth of Industry 245 

XVI. The Question of Slavery 254 

Economic Contrasts 254 

Beginning to Agitate over Slavery . . . . . . .256 

The Texan Revolution. Territory on the Pacific . . .259 
Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free? 265 

XVII. The Political Conflict 272 

The Kansas Struggle Drives the North and South Farther 

Apart 272 

The South Secedes. Concihation Fails 282 

XVIII. The War between the Union and the Confederacy . 287 

The War Begins 287 

The Blockade of Confederate Ports . . . ... . .291 

Campaign for the Opening of the Mississippi .... 294 

The Struggle between the Two Capitals 296 

Uprooting Slavery 299 

Decisive Battles of the War 30 1 

The War and PoUtics 305 

XIX. The End of the vStruggle 309 

The Confederacy Gradually Wearing Out 309 

The Immediate Effects of the Struggle 317 

States Admitted Through Stress of War and Politics . . 323 

XX. Reconstruction of the State 326 

The Struggle between the President and Congress . . . 326 

XXI. New Problems in Politics 332 

New Questions Cause New Parties 332 



THE CONTENTS 



CHARTER PAGE 

XXII. Economic Questions in Politics 343 

Money and Prices 343 

World's Fairs 345 

The Tariff and Politics 346 

Roosevelt in Office 348 

Conservation of Natural Resources 350 

The Progressive Movement 353 

XXIII. Our New Position in the World 357 

The War with Spain, 357 

The Panama Canal 363 

America in the Far East 366 

International Arbitration 369 

The Newer Monroe Doctrine 374 

XXIV. Economic Problems 378 

Immigration 378 

Organized Labor 383 

Factory Acts 389 

The Trusts 390 

XXV. Political Reforms 394 

Changes in Government 394 

City Government 397 

Socialism ' 399 

The First Wilson Administration (1913-17) .... 401 

XXVI. The Growth of the Nation 404 

The growth of the West. New States 404 

The Indians 411 

Growth in Education 414 

Growth of Reading 422 

XXVII. Growth in Trade and Industry 425 

Growth of Foreign Trade 425 

Growth of Industry 430 

Agriculture 430 

Manufacttiring 437 

The Age of Inventions 447 

XXVIII. The World War 450 

America Finds It Hard to Be Neutral 450 

America and the Allies Make War Together .... 456 

The American Government in the War 458 

America after the War 467 

Moral and Social Effects of the War 470 



THE CONTENTS IX 



PAGE 

THE APPENDIX 



I. Notes 477 

II. Study Questions 505 

III. The "Mayflower" Compact 519 

IV. The Declaration of Independence 519 

V. Provisions of the Constitution 523 

VI. The Constitution of the United States 525 

VII. A Table of the States and Territories 539 

Date of Admission, Area, Population, etc. 

VIII. Growth of the United States 540 

The Increase in Town and City Population. 

IX. Gross Area of the United States 540 

X. Facts about Our Latest Dependencies 540 

XI. A Table of the Presidents 541 

XII. Some Statistics of the United States and Territories . 542 

Representation in Congress, School Statistics, etc. 
The Index 543 




t^ 



A LIST OF THE MAPS 

PAGE 

Old Trade Routes to India 6 

The Four Voyages of Columbus 9 

Magellan and Drake's Voyages Around the World lo 

The Distribution of Indian Families and Tribes (in colors) . Facing 17 

London and Plymouth Companies 23 

Territory Claimed by Virginia under the Charter of 1609 .... 25 

The Carolina and Georgia Colonies 33 

The Settlements along the New England Coast 42 

The Region Ruled by Sir Edmund Andros 45 

Early Settlements in Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations 49 

Nev/ Netherland and the " Five Nations " 52 

East and West Jersey and the Surrounding Colonies 56 

The Early Settlements in Pennsylvania . . 61 

European Possessions, 1763 (in colors) Facing 112 

A Map of Boston and Vicinity 119 

The Military Movements in the Middle Colonies 125 

Burgoyne's Campaign 128 

The Campaigns Around Philadelphia 132 

The George Rogers Clark Expedition 136 

Campaigns in the South During the Revolution 139 

The War in Virginia 141 

The United States at the Close of the Revolutionary War (in colors) 

Facing 144 

The Northwest Territory 154 

The Growth of the Settled Area in 1 790 and 1 800 165 

Early Trails and Post Roads 172 

The United States after the Louisiana Purchase (in colors) Facing 192 

The Lewis and Clark Expedition 188 

Campaigns in the North and East, War of 18 12 200 

The Coal Fields of the United States 249 

The Railroads of the United States in i860 251 

xi 



Xll A LIST OF THE MAPS 

PAGE 

The Oregon Boundary Dispute (in colors) Facing 260 

The Texas Boundary Dispute 263 

Territory Gained by the Treaty of Peace, 1848 264 

Changes in Slave and Free Territory, 1820-50 (in colors) Facing 272 

Slave and Free States after the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (in colors) Facing 276 
Union and Confederate States, 1861 (in colors) .... Facing 288 

Campaigns for the Western States 296 

The Eastern Campaigns 298 

The Campaign Around Vicksburg 304 

The Georgia Campaign and the Red River Expedition . ■ 311 

Porto Rico and Cuba 357 

The Philippine Islands 362 

The Republic of Panama 365 

Growth of the Settled Area from 1870 to 19 10 404 



THE PREFACE 

The'purpcse in writing this text is to'present the American people 
in the process of acting out their history. To do this the authors have 
had constantly in mind to set forth this history as a series of pano- 
ramic views. These views will take hold of the pupils' imagination, 
enabhng his understanding to work. 

We have, therefore, taken special pains: (i) To use simple and 
easy words. (2) To use the concrete form of the word instead of the 
abstract form. (3) To use short and striking sentences rather than 
long and compHcated ones. (4) To use many "word-pictures" in 
setting forth events, where the events are important and lend them- 
selves to such treatment. In such cases we have not hesitated to use 
the word-pictures found in Mace's School History. 

A textbook made up largely of word-pictures is necessarily a larger 
book than one of the ordinary kind. Between the two kinds of books 
there are many differences in favor of the former, if the pupils are to 
be considered. In the first case the word-picture's are constantly 
flashing upon his imagination a series of most interesting actions and 
dramatic events. Action in history is always dramatic if it shows 
men in the struggle to attain a common end. 

In the second place the understanding is thus furnished material 
from which it can draw conclusions by its own efifort. Many of the 
conclusions can be self-made if the word-picture presents the facts. 
Hence the high value of the "problem" or "project " method of study. 

Teachers now generally recognize the fact that the "problem" or 
"project" method is the best mode of attack. The subjects for com- 
positions and the questions in the Appendix will be found useful in 
this connection. The authors urge teachers to make sure that the 
pupils regard the text as a reference work to be used in the solving 
of their historical problems, not as something to be used mechanically, 
or memorized. 

The teaching of efifective, functioning citizenship is the great 
problem before the American schools. Citizenship is a functioning 
force or it is nothing. But in order to- function effectively as citizens 
Americans must uuderstand their economic and social environment. 



XIV THE PREFACE 

It is because the authors are deeply interested in the development of 
sound American citizenship that industrial and social problems have 
been given such full treatment. 

Care has been taken to make clear and full the treatment of the 
European and world background, while the increasing importance 
of our interest in Latin America has received ample emphasis in these 
pages. 

The authors have distributed their material in such a way as to 
meet the requirements of the Committee of Eight, the Committee on 
Social Studies appointed by the N. E. A., and finally by the joint 
Committee of the American Historical Association and of the War 
Service Board. 

The Authors 

December, igso 



SCHOOL HISTORY 

CHAPTER I 
EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 

THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE JUST BEFORE COLUMBUS 

1. What Europe looked like. 1 It is not easy to imagine 
how Europe looked at the time of Columbus. Most of 
it was covered with great heavy forests. Towns and 
cities dotted the shores of the Mediterranean, the Atlan- 
tic, and the land along the rivers. To these towns and 
cities traders carried the rich products which Genoa and 
Venice had received from the Far East. To protect their 
cities and towns from robber bands high walls had to be 
built around them. On the sea ships were armed to 
beat off pirates, the robbers of the sea. We must now 
see what manner of people lived at that time, for some 
of them are going to settle in America and make the 
beginnings of our country. 

2. The common man (1400-1500). The great majority 
of the people of Europe were farmers, or peasants as they 
were called. They were not like American farmers ; they 
were not free, did not own the soil they tilled, and dared 
not leave it. They had to grind their grain at the mas- 
ter's mill and could not hunt or fish without his consent. 
These peasants, a kind of half slave, did not venture to 
marry without the master's permission. In England they 
were a bit better off. The peasants were the lowest in 
social rank and always took off their hats to the men 
above them, and stood aside to let the lords pass. 

I 

2 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



Hjrr 



Tfjj 






■^' 







RUINS OF CHATEAU DE BOL \GUIL A C\STLE IN rR\NCn 



The peasants did not live on their Httle farms. They 
were huddled together in small villages, usually at the foot 
I of a hill or moun- 

tain on which the 
lord or master 
had his castle 
home. They lived 
m poor, dingy, 
and dirty huts. 
Only the better 
class had rugs of 
a rude sort for the 
floor, made out of 
rushes. The chil- 
dren did not go to 
school, for they 
had to work in the fields from daylight to dark. The 
peasants did not vote or hold office. 

Laws were made by the big folks for the peasants to 
obey. Sometimes they worked on the king's highroad, 
more often for the lord, and the time left was given to 
their own poor crops. At a warning from the lord or 
from the king the peasant and his sons had to go to war. 

3. The trained workers. Next above stood the trained 
workers, workers in wood, in iron, and in cloth, such as 
woolen and linen weavers and dyers. These men lived 
in the villages and large cities. They formed unions or 
guilds. The guilds often forced the rulers to grant them 
favors. 

4. The merchant and trading class. Above the trained 
workers stood the merchants and traders. They grew up 
later than the other classes but played a great part after 
1500. They often joined the king to keep the nobles in 



THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE JUST BEFORE COLUMBUS 3 

order, or the nobles when the king became tyrannical. 
Order was necessary for trade. The upper classes looked 
down upon the merchants and traders because they owned 
no land. Their property was in houses, ships, goods, and 
money. In Holland and England they first won the right 
to take part in government. 

5. The nobles and the clergy. These were the highest 
social orders in that day. They owned most of the land. 
They were called "privileged" classes. The nobles were 
privileged because they inherited titles and land and did 
not pay taxes. The clergymen were almost the only 
educated people, and because they were ministers of 
religion selected by somebody recognizing the pope's 
authority, they iDclonged to the privileged classes. The 
pope was the head of the clergy as the king was the head 
of the nobles. 

There were different classes of nobles. Some were 
great and some were small. Some owned vast estates 
including hundreds of villages and even large cities. - 
Such a lord could raise a large army. Sometimes he 
fought his neighbor and sometimes even attacked the 
king. It was next to impossible for one not born a noble 
to become one. Nobles married only people of noble 
birth. 

The clergy were of various classes: archbishops, bish- 
ops, and priests. The higher clergy, too, held estates and 
had peasants to work their lands. There was something 
very democratic about the church. Any one of ability 
and the right spirit could become a priest. 

6. The king stands highest. In the society of the 
Middle Ages, and long after, the king stood highest. 
Sometimes the nobles selected a king from their own 
number. They put him down again when he did not suit 



4 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDvS AMERICA 

them. But usually the king was supreme in power. 
Very often he tried to make believe that his authority was 
by divine right. ^ 

In England and in Holland the power of the ruler was 
checked by a parliament. The parliament in other coun- 
tries, if there were one, had little power. 

This whole system which bound the common man, 
nobles, and kings together was called feudaHsm. 



EUROPE'S KNOWLEDGE OF DISTANT LANDS 

7. Stories of the Northmen. The Northmen, living 
in the north of Europe, very early settled Iceland, Green- 
land, and visited the northeast coast of North America. 
They were bold sailors. Their vessels were only large, 
open boats, but they did not fear to sail them upon the 
stormy Atlantic. Driven by oar and sail, and crowded 
with tall, fair-haired warriors eager for adventure, these 

sea-rovers were 
often seen thous- 
ands of miles from 
home. The story 
of Lief Ericson 
and his visit to 
America (1000) did 
not spread over 
Europe until after 
Columbus- had 
made his discovery. 
8. Tales of the 
^"-^ Crusaders and of 
great travelers. 
In the Middle Ages many Christians made journeys to 
Jerusalem, the city where Christ had lived. Suddenly 




NORTHMEN S SHIPS 



EUROPE'S KNOWLEDGE OF DISTANT LANDS 




CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH 



news reached Europe that the Turks, cruel followers of 
Mohammed, had taken the Holy Land.^ Western Europe 

sprang to arms. For 
two hundred years 
thousands of bold war- 
riors marched at dif- 
ferent times to Asia 
Minor to fight the 
Turk. These wars were 
called the Crusades 
(1095-1291). The re- 
turning warriors were 
heroes in the sight of 
their neighbors to whom they told the most wonderful 
tales of Eastern lands. 

Marco Polo, a traveler from Venice, spent nearly thirty 
years in lands of the Far East. He wrote a book about 
what he saw. Columbus is supposed to have read it. 
These stories made the people hungrier than ever for the 
fine goods, sparkling jewels, and rich spices of these far- 
away lands. People 



liked fine things then 
just as much as now. 
9. Smashing old 
trade routes turns at- 
tention to the Atlantic. 
News came again that 
the Turks had taken 
Constantinople (1453). 
They had now broken 
up the old trade routes 
of Venice and Genoa 



(see map). These 




EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



cities finally fell into decay, since their richest trade had 
been cut off, and their sailors turned to the Atlantic where 
Prince Henry of Portugal was striving to find a new 
water route to India. 

10. Portugal leads the way to India. The Portuguese 
were already in the lead. They were seeking the land of 
golden dreams. But the sea was full of horrors to the 
simple-minded sailors. It was not until Dias, a great 




^ -^ 



N D I A .j,i^ 



INDIAN ■■■.OCEAA 



Northern RoiiU ContrMcd by Gcno.i MlJdU RcuU 

Southern Route Controlled by Venice r-i— ,— 

OLD TRADE ROUTES TO INDIA FOLLOWED BY EUROPEAN MERCHANTS 

sea-captain, passed the Cape of Storms, now known as 
the Cape of Good Hope, and looked out upon the Indian 
Ocean that Portugal could see the way to India. She 
did not win the race to India until Da Gama reached that 
country (1498). 

COLUMBUS SEEKS INDIA AND FINDS AMERICA 

II. Columbus asks for aid. This great sailor was 
born in the bustling old town of Genoa (§9). He went to 
sea early, and when he grew to be a man he was drawn to 
Portugal by the news of stirring events. Here he worked 



COLUMBUS FINDS AMERICA 7 

out the idea that the world is round and that he could 
reach India by sailing westward. From maps and globes 
he judged the world 
much smaller than it 
really is, and that India 
is about where North 
America is. What a 
happy mistake 1^ 

Portugal refused to 
help Columbus, and he 
left for Spain. Here 
for eight years he tried 
to secure assistance 
(1484-92). Finally he 
gave up and started 
for France. One day 
he stopped at a con- ' '^<'l\ 

vent and told his story Christopher columbus 

to the keeper, or prior. The prior begged Columbus to 
stay while he hastened to Queen Isabella to ask for help. 
He won a great victory for Columbus and America, for 
the Queen pledged her jewels, if needed, to fit out vessels 
for the voyage. 

12. Columbus makes his first voyage across the At- 
lantic. Columbus was happy, but to his sailors and their 
friends it was a voyage of death. On August 3, 1492, 
with the prior's blessing, he set sail in three small ships. 
He rested at the Canary Islands and then sailed westward 
for over a month. Each day the sailors grew more down- 
hearted. They feared the trade winds would never carry 
them back, and worst of all, that faithful friend, the com- 
pass, began to vary.'' 

Encouraged by signs of land, Columbus held on his way, 




EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



and on October 12, the shores of the New World broke 
on his sight. He took possession of San Salvador, one 
of the Bahama Islands, in grand style. He made explora- 
tions, reaching the coast of Cuba and Haiti. He gathered 
specimens, even natives, to show his monarchs. But he 
was woefully disappointed in finding no rich cities. He 
named the natives Indians, because he was certain he had 
discovered parts of India. He reached home, told his 
story to the King and Queen, and showed his specimens 
to their admiring eyes. 

13. Disappointment of Columbus. Now the people 
wanted him to hurry. Over fifteen hundred crowded his 
seventeen ships for another voyage. The first voyage 
had to take men from the Spanish jails, but now Spanish 
grandees pledged their wealth to go. 




THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS 



This voyage so happily begun (1493) brought only the 
discovery of Jamaica and Porto Rico. A third brought 
him back in chains,^ but he had seen South America. 



OTHER NATIONS TRY THEIR FORTUNES 9 

Columbus made his fourth and last voyage in 1502 and 
died four years afterward. Neither he nor any one else 




THE FOUR VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 



then knew that he had seen a new world. The way to 
India and her treasures still filled the minds of men. 



OTHER NATIONS TRY THEIR FORTUNES 

14. England takes the lead (1497). The news of 
Columbus' great deed stirred all Europe. England sent 
John Cabot, a man from Venice, to find a new route to 
India. He reached North America in the neighborhood 
of Nova Scotia or Labrador. The next year, with his 
son Sebastian, Cabot is supposed to have sailed farther 
south. Thus it was that England laid claim to all 
North America. 

15. The Portuguese turn west. The king of Spain 
hurried a messenger to tell the pope what Columbus had 
done. The pope drew a line from pole to pole, 370 leagues 
west of the Cape Verde Isles. This ran through eastern 



10 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 

South America. He gave all the new lands discovered 
east of this line to Portugal and all west of it to Spain. 
This line seemed to shut England and France out in the 
cold! 

Portugal was still busy with India (§io), but Americus 
Vespucius, an Italian sailing in the employ of Spain and 
then of Portugal, touched South America. He wrote 
several letters about his discoveries, calling the country 
America. The geographers of that day accordingly 
applied his name to South America and later to the whole 
New Worid.8 



SPAIN LEADS IN EXPLORATION 

i6. Spanish discoveries. In the same year (15 13) 
Ponce de Leon explored Florida, and Balboa crossed the 
Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. 
The king of Spain sent Magellan with five small vessels 
to explore South America (15 19). He sailed through 
the strait that bears his name and up the western coast. 
Then he struck directly westward and reached the 




1(7 .)/ Magellan 



MAGELLAN AND DRAKE S VOYAGES AROUND THE WORLD 

Ladrones with his sailors half starved. He was killed 
in the PhiHppines, but his ship made her way by the Cape 



SPAIN LEADS IN EXPLORATION ii 

of Good Hope to Spain. Magellan had proved "that 
India could be reached by sailing westward." Just 377 
years after his ships touched their shores Manila sur- 
rendered to Dewey and the Philippines were ours (§576). 



-^ f 




THE AZTEC CITY OF MEXICO 



17. Cortez conquers Mexico. While Magellan was 
saiHng around the globe, Cortez was conquering one of 
the richest cities in the world (15 19-21). What a sight 
met his eyes ! A city built over a lake, where canals took 
the place of streets, and canoes carried people from place 
to place. Three great roads built of solid stonework ran 
to the center. Here stood a wonderful temple whose 
top could be reached by 114 great stone steps running 
around the outside. The people in Mexico were called 
Aztecs. Over sixty thousand of them, dressed in cotton 
clothes, lived in this city. Cortez set up Spanish rule, 
and Mexico turned millions upon millions of money into 
the lap of Spain. Pizarro found Peru even richer than 
Mexico (1532).^ But in the quarrel over these riches 
he was killed. 

18. Spain disappointed. De Soto, comrade of Pizarro 
in Peru, but later on governor of Cuba, set out for Florida 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



with a large force (1539). He sought rich cities and was 
cruel to the Indians for not finding them for him. He 

discovered the Mis- 
sissippi (1541) but 
disappointed, he 
grew sick, died, and 
was buried beneath 
its waters. '° 

Before the fate of 
De Soto was known, 
Coronado marched 
gaily forth from 
Mexico to find the 
wonderful ' ' Cities of 




DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MIGHTY MISSISSIPPI 



Cibola." He, too, 
was disappointed. He saw only a few Indian pueblos and 
hundreds of "crook-backed cows."'' He was the first 
white man to behold the beauty and grandeur of the 
Grand Canyon of the Colorado. But he was searching 
for gold. The gold, we know, was there, but Coronado 
did not find it. Not even the exploration of California 
(1532) could satisfy Spain's call for gold. 

19. Ill effects on Spain of the gold of South America. 
With the exception of the settlement of St. Augustine 
in Florida (1565) and of Santa Fe in New Mexico (1582), 
Spain gave most of her early efforts to gathering wealth 
from Mexico and South America. The gold and silver 
of these regions made Spain for nearly one hundred years 
the greatest power in Europe but it hurt her in the end. 
She built the great Armada and tried to conquer England. 
Her failure was a terrible blow to her power. Then, too, ' 
the Spanish people could not see why they should work 
with the riches of the New World flowing in upon them. 



FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 13 

They allowed their industries to perish and bought goods 
made in the countries of Northern Europe. Spain became 
poorer and weaker. 

20. Spanish methods of conquest. When the Span- 
iards conquered a country like Mexico they were cruel 
to those opposed to them. But they did not try to kill 
all the natives. Instead they converted them, reduced 
them to slavery, and some they married. Thus the 
natives in many cases mixed with the Spaniards. This is 
why so many of the people of Spanish-America are of 
Indian blood or of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. 
How different it was in the case of the United States ! 
There the native Indians were pushed ahead of the 
settlers and at last were gathered together and made 
to live in certain districts reserved for them. There was 
no intermarriage of Indian and white. The result is 
that our population is today all of European origin. 

FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 

21. Early French efforts. The king of France did not 
like to be shut out of the New World by the pope (§15).^- 
Verrazano, saihng under the French flag, stopped, it is 
said, to admire the New York Bay (1524). Ten years 
later, Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence to an Indian town 
which he named Mont Real (Montreal). He was on his 
way to China, so he thought. 

22. French Huguenots seek a home. The flame of 
the Protestant Revolution broke upon Europe. It 
spread to nearly all countries. Before 1500 European 
nations were nearly all Roman Catholic. After the 
Reformation they were divided into quarreling sects. 
France was torn by religious quarrels, and although her 
king was a Catholic, he gave permission to the Huguenots, 



14 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



or French Protestants, to plant a colony in South 
Carolina (1562). This failed, and they tried once more 
at Port Royal on the Saint John's in Florida. But the 
Spanish governor at St. Augustine (§19) destroyed this 
last attempt of the French to plant a colony so far south. '^ 

ENGLAND SPAIN'S RIVAL, TOO 

23. Commercial rivalry at first. For nearly one hun- 
dred years England had done little to follow up Cabot's 
voyages (§14). She, too, had had her share of religious 
troubles. In Elizabeth's reign England and Spain were 
drifting toward war.^* Among her most daring sailors 
was Drake. The Spaniards called him the "Dragon." 
He pounced upon them everywhere. Finally he sailed into 
the Pacific to rob their treasure ships. He captured mil- 
lions upon millions of gold and silver, spent the winter in 
California (New Albion) , sailed 
west and reached home (i 580), 
having circled the globe. Eng- 
land was ablaze with excite- 
ment over Drake's return with 
Spanish gold. The queen gave 
him the grand title of "Sir." 
24. Raleigh points out a 
wiser way. Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert was given a charter 
for trade and settlement in 
America. He was lost on a 
homeward voyage. His rights 
fell to Sir Walter Raleigh, one 
of the bravest and wisest of 
the Queen's friends. He told the Queen a better way 
to beat the Spaniard was to plant colonies. She was 




SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 



ENGLAND SPAIN'S RIVAL 



15 



pleased with reports from America, and named a part 
of it Virginia. Raleigh sent out two colonies. They 
located on the coast of North 
Carolina. The first did not 
prosper and the second be- 
came the "lost colony." No 
trace of it was ever found. 

25. Results of Raleigh's 
efforts. Raleigh's money was 
about gone. But he did not 
lose heart, for he declared 
that ' ' he would live to see the 
day when Virginia would be a 
nation." The settlers had 
taken back to England a plant 
called tobacco, which was 
soon to be the foundation of 
Virginia's prosperity. With 
them also went corn and potatoes, two products which 
have proved of greater value to mankind than all the 
gold and silver Spain has dug from the mines of the 
New World. 

26. The defeat of the great Spanish Armada (1588). 
Raleigh's second colony was neglected because England 
had kept every man at home to fight against the hundreds 
of ships and thousands of soldiers sent by Spain to attack 
her. The Spaniards were the bravest of soldiers, and 
in all Europe they were the greatest ship builders. With 
137 ships and 27,000 men they set sail to conquer 
England, They sailed proudly up the English Channel. 
The English fleet, of smaller and more nimble vessels, 
swarmed out and boldly attacked them. The great 
Spanish ships, with hundreds of soldiers on board, made 




SIR WALTER RALEIGH 



i6 



EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA 



an easy mark for English gunners, 
to help the EngHsh. The loss of 



A terrific storm came 
life was awful. Less 




SPANISH ARMADA 



than half of the "Invincible Armada" ever saw Spain 
again. From now on we may mark the decline of Spain. 
English sailors grew bolder and the English government 
more courageous in colony planting. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

For teachers: Fiske, Discovery of America, II; Bassett, Short His- 
tory of the United States, chap, ii; Becker, Beginnings of the American 
People, 1-36; Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, I, 
chaps, i-iv; Thwaites, Colonies, 20-24; Parkman, Pioneers of France. 

For pupils: Hale, Stories of Discovery, 1-106; Mace-Tanner, Old 
Europe and Young America, 221-243 (Crusades, Trade Routes), 244- 
251 (Marco Polo, Inventions of the Fifteenth Century), 252-281 
(Prince Henry, Columbus, Balboa, Magellan, Cortez, Pizarro, De 
Soto, Coronado, Las Casas), 282-289 (Verrazano, Bayard, Cartier, 
Coligny, Champlain), 290-305 (Rivalry of England and Holland with 
Spain), 305-315 (How the English Sea-Dogs Fought Spain); Mace, 
Stories of Heroism, 1-54; McMurry, Pioneers on Land and Sea, 1-34, 
161-225; Brooks, True Story of Columbus, 1-103, 11 2-1 22; Hart, 
Source Book, 1-23, 26-82; Hart, Source Reader, I, 4-16. 

Fiction: Henty, Under Drake's Flag; Longfellow, Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Write what you see in a play -battle. 2. Go with Drake around 
the world and write letters telling what took place. 3. Describe the 
scene when Raleigh first attracted the attention of Queen Elizabeth. 



CHAPTER II 

THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE OF 
EARLY AMERICA 

NATURAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 
IN SETTLING NORTH AMERICA 

27. The eastern part of North America. The Atlantic 
coast with its many harbors offered friendly protection 
to settlers. The country from the coast to the moun- 
tains gave the settlers rich soil for crops, plenty of wood 
and lumber for their homes, and choice game for food and 
clothes. This region would have been a paradise for the 
poor man of Europe (§2) had it not been for the fevers 
along the coast and for the Indians in the forests. 

The Appalachian highlands once formed a great barrier 
separating the East from the Mississippi Valley. The 
Hudson and the Mohawk formed the easiest way into this 
region in early days. Another route was by way of the 
Potomac and the headwaters of the Ohio. Still another, 
though less known, was the James River and the Great 
Kanawha. A more famous route ran from the head- 
waters of the Yadkin through Cumberland Gap. Any 
good map will show the great number of rivers taking 
their rise in these highlands and dropping rapidly to the 
sea. These rivers later furnished the settlers with water 
power for driving mills. 

28. The heart of North America. By either the Missis- 
sippi or the St. Lawrence we may reach the heart of North 
America. The French were long-headed enough to see 
that the nation holding this region would control the con- 
tinent. This region has become the granary of the world. 

17 



i8 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 

Northwest of the Ohio River, west and southwest of the 
Mississippi as far as Mexico, are vast treeless regions 
called prairies. Here roved countless herds of buffaloes. 
From the headwaters of the Mississippi and the Ohio 
to the headwaters of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence 
is only a short distance. The Indians made trails from 
one to the other, carrying their canoes and fur packs. 

29. The Rocky Mountains and western highlands. 
Many miles west of the Mississippi rises the gigantic sys- 
tem of highlands called the Rocky Mountains. This 
region is higher than the Appalachian (§27) and broader, 
reaching three hundred miles in places. There are very 
few passes where man may break a road to the westward. 

Once across the Rockies we come to a region extending 
from Canada to Mexico. This highland area has little 
rainfall. Here, as well as in the Rocky Mountains, the 
Indian found his match in the great grizzly bear and in 
the so-called Rocky Mountain sheep. This region is still 
their home. Here, too, the white man finds pasturage 
for thousands of sheep and cattle. In these two regions 
lay hidden from the native vast stores of gold and silver 
and of copper and lead. 

30. The Pacific Coast region. A range of mountains 
still blocks man's way to the Pacific. Once across, he 
finds himself in a country not so extensive as were the 
lands farther east but far more charming as to climate. 

31. The Oregon and Santa Fe trails. The rivers, we 
have seen, were the most important roadways before the 
white man came. The Indian, however, frequently aided 
by the buffalo, had trails leading from one Indian town 
to another. Crossing half the continent to the Pacific 
were two trails of great historic interest, the Oregon and 
the Santa Fe trails. From the place where St. Louis 



HOW THE INDIAN HELPED 



19 



stands the two routes were the same to the western part 
of Missouri. Here the two separated: the Oregon going 




EARLY TRAILS LEADING TO THE PACIFIC COAST 

in a northwest direction to the Columbia River and the 
Santa Fe in a southwest direction to Santa Fe. Pitching 
almost directly south to the Mexican border, it then 
turns directly west toward San Diego on the Pacific. 

HOW THE INDIAN HELPED AND HINDERED THE SETTLERS 

32. Different ways of doing things. The Indian was 
far behind white men in many ways: he wore the skins 
of buffalo, bear, deer, and beaver; these were also used 
in building and furnishing his wigwam or tent. He 
built his fire in the wigwam or in the open. He found it 
hard to keep warm in winter and cool in summer. He 



THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 



armed himself with bow and arrow, spear and tomahawk. 
The tomahawk was a rude stone ax. It seems clear that 

^^ .»»^.„r ^,L-.».».i» ^^^ Indian 

^"^ Za^irar^WiMWQ needed many 

things to 

meet the 

white man as 

an equal. 

33. What 

they both 

wanted. The 

Indian really 

had two 

things wanted 

by the white 

man : land and 

furs. They 

did not under- 

stand each 

other's point 

of view about 

land. The 

Indian looked 

upon it as a 

hunting ground. When game grew scarce, he moved. 

The forests, as a hiding place for his game, were useful 

to him. The white man settled down. He made farms, 

built villages and cities, and had to cut down the forests. 

When the forests were gone, both the game and the 

Indians had to leave. 

The Indian had no ideas of private property. Large 

sections of the country were regarded as the hunting 

grounds of certain tribes, but the individual Indian owned 




HOW THE INDIAN HELPED 21 

no land.' The white settler claimed the land as his own 
property and insisted that the Indian stay off. This 
difference led to quarrels and war. 

The fur trade was their one great tie. But the Indian 
had no idea of the value of his furs. Hence the white 
man's greed and the Indian's suspicion led to quarrels. 
The Dutch in New York won the Indians' confidence, 
but most of the English settlers did not. The Frenchmen 
were their great friends. They hunted, trapped, and 
lived together. They shared each other's campfires as 
boon companions. The Indians and French married and 
raised half-breed children. The Spaniards mixed with 
the Indians but were cruel to them and generally treated 
them as slaves (§20). 

34. Imperfect organization makes Indian opposition 
weak. The great Indian families and their tribes may 
be seen on the map (opp. p. 20). The families were some- 
times hostile, and the tribes of the same family were often 
at war. With the exception of the half-civilized Incas 
in Peru and the Aztecs in Mexico, the most famous "na- 
tion" was the Iroquois ^^ in central New York. Its mem- 
bers had formed an imperfect confederacy and could put 
in battle several hundred of the fiercest warriors. Had 
the Indians been united, it would have gone much harder 
with the early settlers in this country. 

35. The warrior and the worker. The man was a 
warrior and a hunter. He painted his body to make him- 
self look terrible to his enemy. He was a good friend but 
a cruel foe. He loved to fight from ambush and to 
frighten his enemy by loud shouting to give the idea 
of great numbers. He took fiendish pleasure in torturing 
prisoners. If the battle did not go in his favor, he was 
easily discouraged and ran away. 



2 2 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE 

The woman was a worker and a drudge. While the 
hunter was bringing in the supply of meat, or away on 
some warlike expedition, the woman was busy cooking, 
working around the wigwam, and keeping the patch of 
corn, beans, and squash free from weeds. She gathered 
the firewood and when on the move carried the tent poles 
to newer grounds. Yet the Indian squaw as a mother 
often had great influence over her husband. 

Tecumseh was probably the greatest Indian about 
whom we know. He was a fine-looking man. He had 
statesmanlike ideas. He was an orator of the first rank 
and a warrior that knew no fear. He denounced the 
massacre of prisoners. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

For teachers: Bassett, Short History of the United States, chap, i; 
Thwaites, Colonies, i-ig; Fisher, Colonial Era, chaps, i-ii. 

For pupils: Hart, Source Book, 23-26; Hart, Source Reader, I, 
116-117, 121-125. 

Fiction: Monroe, Flamingo Feather; Eastman, Indian Boyhood; 
Longfellow, Hiawatha. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Resolved that Indian boys had a better time than the boys of 
the colonists. 2. Climb to the top of the stone temple in Mexico and 
write about the Aztecs you see. 3. Imagine yourself sitting at the 
"council fire" of the Five Nations and write what you hear. 



CHAPTER III 
THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

MAKING EXPERIMENTS 

36. England stirs interest in Virginia. Raleigh had 
failed (§24). Two great companies were given charters 
to make settlements in Virginia: the Plymouth in north 
Virginia, and the 
London in south 
Virginia. King 
James promised 
the settlers that 
they should be 
Englishmen, "as 
if they had been 
abiding and born 
within the realm 
of England." But 
he took care to 
give them little 
power to govern 
themselves. 

English people 
hesitated to settle 
in America where 
so many things 
were new and strange. Besides, was not Spain watching 
every movement for a settlement ?i« But England needed 
an outlet for her laboring people (§2), who found it 
difficult to get work at home. Therefore sermons were 




LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES 



23 



24 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



preached, pamphlets were printed, and poems were 
written, sounding the praises of Virginia. 

37. Jamestown settled (1607). The wish to get rich 
quickly and return to England brought 104 settlers to 
Jamestown in the spring of 1607. They did not come to 
work but to find gold. Excitement ran high. Their 
imaginations "worked overtime:" a few miles inland 
might be the Pacific Ocean, which Drake had crossed, 
and there, too, might be another Peru. Among the 
mountains were streams whose waters might flow over 
golden sands, and mines whose riches no man could count. 
Men could not work in the midst of such prospects! 

38. John Smith comes to the front. John Smith, ^^ the 
strongest man in the colony, now took charge. He com- 
pelled idlers to work, traded with the Indians for food, and 
had the cabins repaired. He wrote to the London Com- 
pany to send no more such settlers, but ' ' carpenters, hus- 
bandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and 
diggers of trees' roots." John Smith held the colony 
together until more settlers came. A new charter (1609) 




THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN 



gave new boundaries to south Virginia (see map) and 
greater power to the company. 



GETTING A FOOTHOLD 



25 



39. Out of death comes life. John vSmith had to go 
to England; idleness and disorder broke out, and the 




TERRITORY CLAIMED BY VIRGINIA UNDER THE CHARTER OF I609 

"starving time" resulted. Over four hundred settlers 
went to their graves, and only sixty were left to tell the 
tale (16 10). Fortunately Lord Delaware arrived with 
supplies just as they were leaving for England. 

In the spring of 1611, eight hundred more settlers 
arrived, and with them came the man to control them. 
Sir Thomas Dale. He was a fearless soldier who ruled 
by military law. He abolished the ' ' common storehouse ' ' 
and gave each man a few acres to till. The effect was 
magical. Even idlers went to work. 

GETTING A FOOTHOLD 

40. Tobacco makes Virginia prosperous. The settlers 
did not prosper at first. They began making things for 



26 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



the English market which could be produced cheaper in 
the old home. Happily, John Rolfe raised a crop of 
tobacco and sold it for a good price (1612). The settlers 
took up tobacco-raising with enthusiasm. Governor Dale 
had to declare that no man should plant tobacco until he 
had first put two acres in grain. In 1619 Virginia sent 
20,000 pounds of tobacco to England, and doubled the 
amount the next year. On both banks of the James River 
great tobacco plantations sprang up, and Jamestown be- 
came a queer-looking village. It was a series of tobacco 
farms with the James River as its main street. 

41. An important date in American history (16 19). 
The year 16 19 not only marks (i) the first great crop of 
tobacco, but (2) the beginning of representative govern- 
ment in America, (3) the sending of a large number of 
maidens to be wives of the settlers, thus making Virginia 
homes more cheerful and comfortable, and (4) the landing 
of a Dutch trading vessel with twenty slaves. Thus 

,^^ slavery and 

f^^ ^ '- representa- 

~ five govern- 

men t had 
their begin- 
ning in the 
same year. 
The London 
Company 
sent over 
Governor 
Yeardley to 
call a repre- 
sentative assembly. 7Vo men were elected from each 
plantation or neighborhood. They formed what the 




THE LANDING OF THE YOUNG WOM 



VIRGINIA, THE KING'S COLONY 27 

Virginians loved to call a House of Burgesses. They 
met in the little church. The governor and his council, 
keeping their hats on, took the front seats. The 
burgesses took seats behind them. The meeting was 
opened with prayer by the clergyman. Each man took 
an oath to be loyal to the king. A speaker, a clerk, and 
a sergeant were elected and took seats facing the assembly. 
This house served as a training school for Virginians, and 
when the Revolution broke out, no other colony in America 
furnished so many great men.^^ 

42. Contentment grows. Settlers now came to stay, 
because work was plenty. Laborers were in demand for 
tobacco-raising, and came to Virginia in large numbers. 
For a long time they largely outnumbered the slaves. 
There were only sixteen hundred people in the colony in 
1624, although more than seven thousand had been sent 
out. Many of them had died, many had returned home, 
but nearly four hundred had been killed by the Indians 
in the massacre (1622). Virginia had a hard time getting 
started. 

43. The London Company loses its charter. The Lon- 
don Company had fallen into progressive hands. King 
James opposed this and took advantage of the Indian 
massacre to take away its charter. It was a battle 
between the "divine right" of the king to do what he 
pleased and the Company to do what was best for Virginia. 
The king won. But the Company had made Virginia 
a barrier against the Spaniard and had founded the idea 
of representative government. 

VIRGINIA, THE KING'S COLONY 

44. Trouble arises in England. A new party called the 
Puritan party was arising in England. Parliament was 



28 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

becoming Puritan (§6i) and quarreled with the king over 
taxes and reHgion. Down to 1641 more than one thou- 
sand Puritans migrated to Virginia to escape the king's 
persecution. In 1642 one of the king's men, Berkeley, 
became governor of Virginia. Berkeley and the bur- 
gesses banished the Puritans. Most of them went to 
Maryland (§52). 

The Puritans finally won out in England and beheaded 
Charles I. The burgesses immediately invited his son, 
Charles II, to Virginia, but he did not come. The leader 
of the Puritans, Cromwell, established a kindly rule in 
Virginia. He gave the colony free government, free 
trade, and free reHgion. From England came groups of 
Cavahers, friends of the king, seeking homes in America. 
The Virginians gave them a hearty welcome, for many 
of them were well-to-do, refined, and well educated. 
They gave a higher tone to Virginian society. 

45. Virginia again in the king's hands. While the 
Puritans and Cavaliers were having trouble, Virginia had 
been growing by leaps and bounds. 
By 1640 its people numbered about 
15,000, and by 1660 they had grown 
to 40,000. Only 300 were negro 
slaves. Up Chesapeake Bay and its 
rivers pushed the planters with their 
great fields of tobacco and grain. 

When England, tired of Puritan 
rule, called Charles II to be king 
(1660), the Cavaliers in England 
and Virginia were wild with joy. 

A C-AVAl.IEK T-« 1 1 1 ' > 

Berkeley came to the governor s 
chair again and showed that he had learned nothing 
from his experience. He kept the House of Burges.ses 




VIRGINIA, THE KING'S COLONY 



29 



for seventeen years without election, took the right to 
vote from all except landholders, and persecuted Baptists, 
Quakers , and • > ^ ■ " , 



others who refused 
t o attend the 
English church.''-' 

46. Bacon's Re- 
bellion (1676). But 
Berkeley's time of 
punishment was at 
hand. The Indians 
suddenly fell upon 
the Virginiansa n d 
killed some of 
them. Berkeley 
would do nothing 
for fear of losing 
the Indian fur 
trade in which he 
shared. Nathaniel 
Bacon quickly 
raised a band of 
riflemen and marched against the Indians. Berkeley 
declared him a traitor for fighting without his per- 
mission. Bacon returned, drove Berkeley out of James- 
town, and burned it. At the height of his success 
Bacon died, and Berkeley took pleasure in hanging the 
"rebel" leaders. King Charles declared that "the old 
fool has put to death more people in that naked country 
than I have for the death of my father." One of the 
burgesses said: "If we had let him alone, he would have 
hanged half the country." The king called Berkeley 
back to England. Virginia never forgot Bacon's rebellion. 




BACON AND HIS FOLLOWERS 



30 



THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 



MARYLAND, A NEW KIND OF COLONY 

47. A home for Catholics and Protestants (1634). For 

over one hundred years in England Roman Catholics and 
Protestants had persecuted each other. George Calvert, 
Lord Baltimore, was a Roman Catholic. He was greatly 
beloved by the English king. Baltimore decided to find 
a home for his people in America. King Charles I gave 
him Maryland, named in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. 
Before the colony was ready, Baltimore died. Follow- 
ing an old European custom, his oldest son, Cecil, fell heir 
to his titles and his property (§5). He immediately sent 
out a colon}^ of over two hundred settlers to the north 
bank of the Potomac, near its mouth. The majority of 

this first colony, called St. 
Mary's, were Protestants. 
48. A happy colony. The 
Indians were friendly and 
opened their wigwams to 
the settlers. They taught 
the men how to hunt the 
deer and the turkey, and 
the women how to bake 
bread before an open fire. 
Fortune smiled on St. 
Mary's. She had no 
starving timej^§39), and no 
Indian massacre. She had 
a representative assembly. 
Her people opened up 
trade with their neighbors and with far-away New Eng- 
land. They stocked their farms with cows, hogs, and 
sheep. They raised good crops, and were very happy 
in their homes in the New World. 




GEORGE CALVERT 



MARYLAND, A NEW KIND OF COLONY 



31 



49. Maryland, a strange colony. Religious toleration 
a new thing in the world, was soon established in Maryland 
by Lord Baltimore who was 
owner or proprietor of the 
colony. He not only owned 
the land, but appointed the 
governors, vetoed the laws 
made in the colony, and 
named the judges. Only the 
king could do these things 
in England. Baltimore was 
almost a king in Maryland. 

50. How tobacco -raising 
spoiled a part of Baltimore's 
plan. Baltimore had the 
right to grant titles of nobil- 
ity. He planned to have a 
number of great estates in 
Maryland. On these were 
to live men with grand titles in splendid manor houses, 
after the style of old Europe (§5). On these estates, too, 
were to live the laborers in their cabins. They were to 
work for the lord of the manor. But when the people came 
to the colony, they found it much easier and far better to 
raise their own tobacco and be their own masters. The 
great estates then had to be broken up into tobacco 
plantations. 

51. A representative assembly and toleration. The 
very next year after the birth of the colony, a representa- 
tive assembly was estabHshed (1635). This assembly, 
called the House of Burgesses, worked well. One of its 
most important laws was the Act of Toleration (1649). 
This act declared that "no person or persons whatsoever 




CECIL CALVERT 



32 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

within this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, 
shall from henceforth be any ways troubled." 

52. Trouble from Virginia. William Claiborne, a Vir- 
ginian, claimed Kent Island in the Chesapeake. He 
refused to obey Maryland's authority, and she drove him 
out. The Puritans, driven from Virginia, had crossed 
to Maryland (§44).'*^ When Cromwell, the great Puritan 
general, came to be head of the government in England, 
Claiborne and the Puritans joined forces and captured 
St. Mary's. But Cromwell knew how to be just as well 
as stern. He restored Baltimore's authority on his 
promising toleration forever. 

53. Maryland prosperous. The kindly cHmate, the 
rich soil, freedom from Indian troubles, and religious 
toleration attracted settlers. The great majority of 
them were Protestants and welcomed the revolution 
which put William and Mary on the throne of England 
(1688). 2^ In 1720 was founded, well up on Chesapeake 
Bay, the chief city of the colony, Baltimore. By the time 
of the Revolution it was a most prosperous city. 

THE TWO CAROLINAS, THE HOME OF MANY KINDS 
OF PEOPLE 

54. North and South Carolina. We have already seen 
settlers migrating from Virginia to Maryland (§44). 
Shortly afterwards some went to North Carolina. The 
House of Burgesses gave other settlers land grants on 
Albemarle Sound (1653). Some New Englanders tried to 
occupy the region around the mouth of Cape Fear River 
but had to give it up. 

These settlements were made, not by England, but by 
the colonists themselves. But the king gave the Caro- 
linas to eight favorites. These nobles had a constitution ^^ 



THE TWO CAROLINAS 



33 



:|,- N O ' 

Sa r o 

•(, FayettO' 
\' "■\. 

SOUTH 
CAROLINA 



drawn up for Carolina which planned to have classes of 
people from the laborer up to lords. The people settling 
in the CaroHnas 



paid no attention 
to it and went 
about making set- 
tlements in their 
own way. Thus 
failed another 
ejffort to establish 
feudalism among 
the southern colo- 
nies (§50). 

55. Settlement 
of Charleston 
(1670). The pro- 





CAROLINA AND GEORGIA COLONIES 



prietors hurried a colony over to settle ' ' Charles Town 
at the union of the Cooper and Ashley rivers. Later, the 
colony finding a better location, moved Charleston to its 
present place. This colony built a fort and got ready 
for the Spaniards (§19). They did not have to wait 
long, but the Spaniards, when they saw the Carolinians 
were ready for them, returned without striking a single 
blow. Hence the Carolinas were a barrier in holding back 
the Spaniard (§24). 

56. The coming of many kinds of people. At first the 
Carolinas promised to be like Virginia and Maryland, 
settled by English churchmen only. But presently came 
the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, driven to America by laws 
which made it hard to earn a living in Ireland. The 
Quakers settled in large numbers, especially in North 
Carolina. A few Swiss and Germans settled along the 
sea, and latest of all came the Scotch Highlanders, 



34 THE vSOUTHERN COLONIES 

who were banished for being true to the Young Pretender, 
the grandson of James II (§78).""'' But the most interest- 
ing of all the people migrating to the Carolinas were the 
French Huguenots (§109).-' 

57. Occupations and government. The Carolinas were 
alike in that the early settlers in both colonies raised 
tobacco. This brought them ready money from England. 
North Carolina was made up mostly of small independent 
farmers. Many raised wheat and corn and made pitch, 
tar, and turpentine from the great forests of pine. They 
did not have many slaves. 

At first South Carolina centered around Charleston. 
Her planters Hved in the city in the winter and upon their 
plantations in the summer. They owned many slaves. 
Rice was introduced and became the leading product for 
a long time. Indigo, too, found a place on Carolina 




plantations. Both articles brought EngHsh trade to 
Charleston. 

The proprietors and the people did not get on well 
together. The proprietors were aristocratic, and the 



GEORGIA, THE REAL BARRIER 



35 



people were democratic. They tried several experiments. 
Albemarle and Charleston had separate governors. In 
1 69 1 the two were united 
under one governor. 
But trouble continued, 
and the proprietors 
sold out to the king 
(1729). Again they 
were divided and re- 
mained royal provinces 
down to the Revolution. 

GEORGIA, THE REAL 
BARRIER 

58. Oglethorpe plants 
a new kind of colony. 

James Oglethorpe was 
the founder of Georgia 
(1732). He was moved 
to this act by the con- 
dition of the poor debtors of England. A man who could 
not pay his debts was thrown in jail. There he might 
stay until he died. This was usually not so very long, 
for the jails were foul places and overrun with vermin. 
Oglethorpe planned to take the fittest of these debtors 
to some colony where they might get a new start in life. 

Still another purpose moved Oglethorpe. The Span- 
iards were now becoming excited over the growth of the 
Carolinas (§19). The time had come to push "Raleigh's 
barrier" farther south (§24). Patriotic Englishmen now 
came forward, and by the aid of ParHament they raised 
$500,000 to help the new colony. 

59. Savannah settled (1733). Oglethorpe selected 
thirty-five families from among the great number who 




JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE 



36 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

wanted to go. Charleston gave them a hearty welcome. 
They finally selected a place near the mouth of the 
Savannah River. More settlers came, and among them 
three famous men : Charles Wesley, who became a great 
hymn writer; John Wesley, a missionary to the Indians 
and afterwards a great religious leader, and George 
Whitefield, one of the most eloquent preachers who ever 
came to America. 

There soon came to the new colony Salzburgers 
from Austria, Moravians from Germany, Protestant 
Highlanders, Swiss, and Jews. These people were all 
allowed to practice their own reHgion. 

60. Frederica, Georgia's barrier (1736). Frederica 
was settled on an island well down the coast. It was well 
fortified. The Spaniards attacked it only once, and then 
Oglethorpe beat them off and carried the war into Florida. 
Georgia was the last of the thirteen American colonies 
to be settled. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

For teachers: Fiske, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; Hart, Con- 
lemporaries, I, chaps, xi-xiii; Bassett, SItori History, chap. iii. 

For pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 64-95; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 
54-61; Hart, Source Book, 11-14, 48-51, 71-73. 88-95, 108-109; Hart, 
Source Reader, I, 25-28, 98-104, 143, 175-177; Coffin, Old Times in 
the Colonies, 97-110. 

Fiction: Johnston, To Have and To Hold, Audrey; Otis, Richard of 
Jamestown. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Attend the wedding of Pocahontas and write an account of it 
for a newspaper. 2. Write the story of the "White Aprons" in the 
story of Bacon and Berkeley. 3. Visit the southern colonies and write 
in your diary what you see in 1 740. 



CHAPTER IV 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

THE PILGRIM FATHERS 

6i. The rise of the Pilgrims and the Puritans. New 

England was at first a part of "Virginia" (§24), but the 
Plymouth Company had failed in its settlement on the 
banks of the Kennebec (1607). Captain John Smith 
explored, mapped, and ^ 

named New England (16 14). 
But a different kind of people 
was destined for her shores. 
The Reformation caused 
mighty religious upheavals 
(§22). It divided English- 
men into Roman Catholics 
and English church people. 
Some belonging to the Eng- 
lish church wanted to change 
certain forms and ceremonies 
in the church. They wanted 
a purer church, they said. 
Hence they took the name 
Puritan, Some of them broke away from the English 
church and formed independent congregations, elected 
their own preachers, and were very democratic. These 
people were called Separatists. The great body of Puri- 
tans, however, remained in the EngHsh church intending 
to purify and to reform it. 




A PURITAN MINISTER 



37 



38 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 




THE OLD CITY OF LEIDEN 




62. Separatists turn Pilgrims. People in London 
stoned the Separatists, and the king's officers hurried their 

leaders to jail. In 
the village of Scrooby 
worshiped a little con- 
gregation of Separa- 
tists. They resolved 
to fly to Holland, the 
land of dikes and 
windmills. Holland 
had just won its 
independence from 
Spain after a hard war and most bitter persecutions. 
The Dutch made themselves glorious by granting re- 
ligious toleration. 

The Pilgrims escaped to Amsterdam and then journeyed 
to Leiden, After a few years their children were marry- 
ing Dutchmen, and in a short time their children's children 
would become Hollanders. They decided to leave for 
America. 

63. The voyage of the "Mayflower." Their pastor, 
the noble John Robinson, decided to stay in Holland to 
comfort those who could not go. One hundred and two 
sailed under the lead of Brewster, Bradford, and Myles 
Standish.-'^ They planned to settle near the mouth of the 
Hudson (§84), but storms drove them to Cape Cod. 
Before landing the men signed the "Mayflower Com- 
pact" to make sure of an orderly government. They 
bound themselves to make "just and equal laws for the 
general good of the colony." 

64. Plymouth settled (1620). The Pilgrims chose 
Plymouth Harbor for a home. They built huts for the 
people, for they were already in the midst of a cold winter 



THE PILGRIM FATHERS 



39 




THE "MAYFLOWER ON ITS WAY TO AMERICA 



(December). They had been used to the gentler climate 
of England and Holland and did not yet know how to 
build warm and 
comfortable 
houses. One-half 
of the little band 
were dead when 
spring came. But 
the Pilgrims had 
stout hearts, for 
not one returned 
with the "May- 
flower' ' in the 
spring. 

65. Relation to 
the Indians. The 
Pilgrims were on good terms with the Indians. Each 
treated the other well. These dusky warriors taught the 
whites how to capture the wild animals and showed them 
where fish were most abundant. They taught them how 
to raise corn on poor soil by putting a fish in each hill as 
fertilizer. Massasoit, a neighboring chief, came with 
friendly greetings. 

66. The first Thanksgiving Day. Every man had to 
till the soil, and raise his crop of corn, wheat, rye, and 
peas. After gathering their first harvest, they decided 
to celebrate by giving thanks to a kindly Providence for 
watching over them and for filling their common store- 
house. The Indians joined with them, enjoying their 
own pastimes. Repeated from year to year, this custom 
has grown into a great national Thanksgiving. 

67. Growth of the colony. The colony grew slowly. 
Several towns sprang up, but when Plymouth joined the 



40 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



New England Confederation (1643) there were not over 
3,000 people in the whole colony. The Pilgrims formed 
the most democratic colony planted in North America. 
They had no church officers except those elected by them- 
selves. The same was true in government. All ques- 
tions were debated in town meeting, and then voted on. 
Above all, the Pilgrim Fathers gave to their children a 

noble example 
of manliness, 
uprightness, 
and trust in 
God. 

In 1920 
Massachu- 
setts and the 
whole country 
celebrated 
the three hun- 
dredth anni- 
versary of the "Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers." 

THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 

68. Troubles between king and Parliament. The 

EngHsh ParHament, composed largely of Puritans (§44), 
refused Charles I money until he made certain reforms. 
Charles had to have money and forced rich men to give 
it to him. This was not legal, and Parliament com- 
pelled him to sign the Petition of Right (1628).-'^ He 
dismissed Parliament, resolved never to call another. 
Charles now put in force harsh laws against the Puritans. ^^ 
He threw some of their great leaders into prison, drove 
many of their ministers from the churches, and persecuted 
those who would not attend the Church of England. 




FURNITURE BROUGHT OVER ON THE MA.V FLOWER 



MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 



41 



69. The "Great Migration." Some of the Puritan 
leaders decided to try their fortunes in America. They 
obtained a charter from Charles I for the Massachusetts 
Bay Company (1629). Eleven vessels carrying over 700 
emigrants, under the lead of John Winthrop, sailed for the 
land of promise (1630). More than 2,000 left for Massa- 
chusetts within a year, and more than 25,000 migrated 
to New England before the outbreak of the Puritan 
Revolution (1641). The Puritans had more property 
than the Pilgrims . Many were 
well-to-do country gentlemen 
who were landowners in Eng- 
land. Some, too, had been to 
college at Cambridge. 

70. First settlements and 
governments. Salem had been 
settled by John Endicott 
(1628). Winthrop settled 
Boston, and it soon grew into 
the leading town as the seat 
of government. Other towns 
were soon settled, such as 
Newtown, afterwards changed 
to Cambridge, Watertown, 
Roxbury, Lynn, Dorchester, and others. These Puritans 
were Congregationalists. Each little band brought its 
minister and soon formed a town which controlled its 
own affairs. Over all these, by the charter which 
Winthrop had brought to America, a government was 
established. This was made up of the governor and the 
assistants who advised him. 

71. Conservative and progressive parties. Among the 
Puritans some were conservative and some progressive. 




JOHN WINTHROP 



42 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



The progressives demanded that the towns send represen- 
tatives to the general government. Representatives 

were, therefore, 
elected to ad- 
vise the gover- 
nor and assist- 
ants (1634). 
The governor 
and assistants 
were made into 
an upper house, 
while the repre- 
sentatives from 
the towns sat as 
a lower and 
more demo- 
cratic house. 
This change in 
government 
was made by 
the colony itself 
without advice 
or orders from 




^Massachusetts 



,&"^''?-:;SK, "ay 

; ) Cape Cod;~-^_^ 

"<>L^ Cap. Cod \\ 

Bay \ 




THE SETTLEMENTS ALONG THE NEW ENGLAND COAST 



England. 



The progressives did not always have their own way. 
They called for a written constitution as early as 1635 
but did not get the Body of Liberties until 1641. 

Roger Williams had already denounced the law com- 
pelling people to attend church. He was arrested, tried, 
and ordered back to England. He did not go but fled 
to Rhode Island. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson preached 
against a "covenant of works." She, too, was banished. 2** 
During these discussions in Massachusetts, Thomas 



OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 43 

Hooker led a company of one hundred people to the 
Connecticut Valley, where they found free opportunity. 
Hooker was progressive and Winthrop conservative. 
They differed but did not quarrel. 

OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 

72. The New England Confederation (1643). The 

dangers from the Indian, the Dutch (§84-89), and the 
mother country led the New Englanders to form a union. 
Four colonies were admitted; Rhode Island was left out. 
Two delegates from each colony met each year to look 
after the common business. Massachusetts, the larg- 
est colony, had the most influence in deciding questions. 
The colonists never forgot the lessons of this confederation. 

73. The Puritan Revolution in England (1641-60). 
We saw Charles I taking 

things into his own hands 
(§89): he gathered money 
without the consent of Parlia- 
ment and forced the English 
church upon the Scotch peo- 
ple. The Scots sent an army 
to fight him. Charles was 
compelled to call the Long 
Parliament ( 1 6 4 1 ) . This 

Parliament, in the hands of jmfv>-':»m, '^w-z '■^. \ 
Puritans, made reforms and %Sr\jL.^^i^^''-''-'^f^^' 
called Cromwell to organize 
the army. They defeated 
and beheaded the king (§44). 

/~\ 11 a J 1 1 1 CHARLES I, KING OF ENGLAND 

Cromwell was now at the head 

of the government . He showed the world what the common 

man can do. Americans never forgot the lesson of his rule. 




44 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

74. The Quakers invade Massachusetts (1656). Born 
in the stormy times of Cromwell, the Quakers carried their 
rehgion where it was not wanted. Massachusetts wanted 
only Puritans, and when Quakers came, she hanged four of 
them. But mutterings of rebellion were heard and, much 
to the disgust of many old-fashioned Puritans, the judges 
set other Quakers free. Rhode Island gave tHe Quakers 
hearty welcome. 

75. Religious toleration. It seems strange to us that 
the Puritans who had left their native land on account of 
reHgious troubles would not let the Quakers stay in 
Massachusetts. After all it was not so very strange. 
For centuries all Europe believed that all people ought to 
belong to the same church. If any one tried to start a 
new church he was looked upon as a very dangerous 
person, just as we regard traitors today. It was thought 
to be just as much the business of the government 
to protect the people from those who wanted to start 
new churches as it was to protect them from a foreign 
enemy. 

When the Protestant Revolution came people had not 
changed their minds very much on this point (§44). 
Most of the new Protestant churches were not tolerant. 
They still believed in having one church. The Puritans 
in America tried to make others obey that rule. If this 
were not done the Puritans felt that they could never have 
the kind of reHgious and moral influences they wanted. 
Men only slowly learned that they must tolerate differ- 
ences as to church and religion. By 1791 the desire for 
toleration had gained so much that the very first 
amendment to the Constitution was made to declare that 
' ' Congress shall make no law respecting an estabhshment 
of rehgion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." 



OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 



45 



76. King Philip's struggle (1675). After the defeat of 
the Pequots in Connecticut (1637), the Indians remained 
quiet. Philip succeeded the friendly Massasoit, and 
he saw he must destroy the whites or his hunting grounds 
would be no more. He fought two years, killed one-tenth 
of New England's soldiers, but was himself killed, and 
the Indian power was shattered. 

77. Charles II and James II make trouble. The Eng- 
lish people had grown tired of solemn faces, quiet Sun- 
days, and the harsh rule of the Puritans. Shortly after 
Cromwell died they called Charles II to be king, amid 
great rejoicing. He hated Puritans and sent certain 
commands to Massachusetts which were not obeyed. He 
finally took away the charter of this colony (1684). He 
died suddenly, and James 
II made Sir Edmund 
Andros governor of New 
England, New York, and 
Newjersey. Andros 
ruled with a high hand, 
abolished New England 
town meetings, taxed peo- 
ple without their consent, 
and threw men in jail with- 
out trial by jury. 

78. The revolution in 
England and the fall of 
Andros (1688). James II 
was a bigger tyrant than 
Andros and news came 
that England had driven him from the throne (§92). 
The people of Boston rushed together and arrested some 
of the king's officers. Andros fled to the fort in the 




46 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

harbor. Alarm guns sounded, and signal fires burned on 
Beacon Hill. A thousand soldiers gathered, and hun- 
dreds of men, led by a school teacher, swarmed in from 

the country ready to fight. 
Andros surrendered, and 
William and Mary gave 
Massachusetts a new char- 
ter granting toleration to 
all sects (i69i).29 

NEW HAMPSHIRE AND 
') MAINE 




SIR EDMUND ANDROS 



79. Proprietary colonies. 

Mason and Gorges were 
given the land between 
the Merrimac and Ken- 
nebec rivers. Dover had 
already been settled by 
fishermen and fur traders 
when the owners sent out 
a colony to Portsmouth 
(1630). The grant was 
divided: Mason took what is now New Hampshire, and 
Gorges the larger part and called it Maine. When 
William and Mary granted a charter to Massachusetts, 
it gave her control over these colonies. More and more, 
as they greW stonger, these outposts kept back both 
French and Indian. 

CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 

80. The beginnings of Connecticut. We have already 
seen the democratic Hooker leading his people from 
Massachusetts to the Connecticut Valley (1636) (§71). 
They plunged into the wilderness, carrying their tools 



CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 



47 



and arms and driving a goodly herd of cattle along with 
them. Out of this migration grew the towns of Hartford, 
Wethersfield, and Windsor. Hooker called the people 
together and preached them a democratic sermon. They 
set up a written constitution, the first of its kind in the 
world (1639).^" They joined the New England Confedera- 
tion as the colony of Connecticut (§72). 

While Massachusetts was in an uproar over Mrs. 
Hutchinson (§71), a band of London Puritans landed in 
Boston. Eaton and Davenport were its leaders. They 
were attracted to the region on the north shore of Long 
Island Sound. They were delighted with their place 
and named it New Haven (1638). These people were 
among the strictest of the Puritans. They set up a 
government based on the Bible. As in Massachusetts, 
only church members could vote. Other settlements 
were made: Milford, Guilford, and Stamford. With 
New Haven, these towns formed a union (1643) and 




THE PILGRIMAGE TO THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY 

joined the New England Confederation under the 
name of the New Haven colony (§72). 



48 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 




THE CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN COLONIES 



8i. The two colonies united (1662). A charter was 
granted to Connecticut by the king. It continued the 
democratic government so happily begun. The people 

liked it so 
well that 
they kept it 
until 1818. 
But the king 
did not like 
New Haven ; 
two of the men 
hiding there 
had been 
among those 
who had con- 
demned his father to death. He joined her to Connecti- 
cut as a punishment. 

RHODE ISLAND THE MOST DEMOCRATIC COLONY 

82. Origin of Rhode Island (1636). Driven from his 
home in winter, Roger Williams sought shelter with his 
good friend Massasoit (§71). " For fourteen weeks he was 
sorely tossed in a bitter season, not knowing what bread 
or bed did mean." In June he founded Providence as 
"a shelter for persons distressed in conscience." True 
to his teachings, Williams bought the land from the 
Indians and passed no law touching reHgious beliefs (§71). 
Other persons driven out by the government were wel- 
comed by Williams. Among them was Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson (§71). She was sent out of the Colony for 
holding meetings for women. In these rneetings they 
found fault with the ministers. Newport, Portsmouth, 
and Warwick were settled. 



RHODE ISLAND 



49 



83. Union under one charter (1644). Roger Williams 
had great influence with Parliament, since it was now 
strongly Puritan (§68) . He obtained 
a good charter, uniting the different 
towns and permitting them to govern 
themselves. The government under 
this charter was almost as liberal as 
that of a republic. When Charles 
II came to the throne he confirmed 
the charter (1662). So well satisfied 
were the people that they kept it 
until 1842. 



SUGGESTED READINGS 
For teachers: Fiske, The Beginnings of 



Provfdence ( j i' ^ (j, 



) ' 






\S-^,il_LJ_ 



yllC 



0^ 



eA^ 



EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN 

RHODE ISLAND AND 

THE PROVIDENCE 

PLANTATIONS 



New England; Bassett, Short History of the 
United States, 59-70, 92-97; Hart, American 
History Told by Contemporaries, I, chaps, 
xiv-xxi. 

For pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 112-117; Coffin, Old Times in the 
Colonies, 111-140, 152-170, 184-194, 265-270; Dralce, Making of New 
England; Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 
63-74; Hart, Source Book, 37-41, 80-82; Hart, Source Reader, I, 28-30, 
57-59' 59-63, 133-136, 136-140, 172-173, 177-182. 

Fiction: Stow, Mayflower; Austen, Myles Standish; Mrs. Hemans, 
l^he Pilgrims; Longfellow, Courtship of Myles Standish; Otis, Ruth of 
Boston. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Write about the Pilgrims in their three homes. 2. Attend the 
first Thanksgiving. Tell who was there and what they did. 3. Visit 
one of Mrs. Hutchinson's meetings and "report it" for the class. 



CHAPTER V 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

THE STRUGGLE OF THE DUTCH TO PLANT A COLONY 

84. Holland the home of religious freedom. Holland 
was not great in area nor in the number of its people. 
But Dutchmen were doing big things. They had driven 
the Spaniards out of their country, and their sailors were 
found in every sea. They invaded the East Indies, fought 
the British and the Portuguese, and even now hold some 
of the richest islands in the East.^^ Their manufacturers 
were among the richest in the world. Holland was the 
home of religious toleration (§62), and there the Pilgrims 

were still living 
._ ' ■ (1610-20). 

Dutch merchants 
sent Henry Hudson 
to search for a new 
water route to India. 
In the "Half Moon" 
he sailed up the river 
which now bears his 
name (i6o9).'''- He 
noted the country's 
beauty, the richness 
of the soil, and the great number of fur-bearing animals. 
The merchants were quick to take advantage of the dis- 
covery. They built huts on Manhattan ( 1 6 1 3 ) , a fort near 
Albany, and made lasting friends with the Iroquois (§33). 
The Dutch had made a good beginning with the Indians. 




HUDSON IN THE "HALF MOON 



SO 



THE DUTCH PLANT A COLONY 



SI 



85. The growth of the colony. Holland gave New 
Netherland to the Dutch West India Company. Set- 
tlers had no right to govern themselves, but were ruled 
by a governor and council appointed by the Company. 
The fur traders did not mind much and pushed their 
way down the Delaware, on Long Island, and to the 
Connecticut ( §80) . Governor Minuit bought Manhattan 
Island for less than one cent per acre! Today this is the 
most valuable land in America. 

86. The patroon system (1629). Real settlers came 
in slowly. The Company tried to hurry up settlement 
by bringing in a part of the feudal system (§6). They 
gave the title of ' ' patroon ' ' and great tracts of land to 
any member of the Company bringing over fifty settlers. 
The patroon was to be their lawmaker, governor, and 
judge. The settlers were not to hunt, fish, or manufac- 














^ "" j,'^ ^ ^ *-^^'' 



A MANSION OF A PATROON ON THE FAMOUS VAN RENSSELAER ESTATE 

ture, or remove from the plantation. They had to sell 
to the patroon and grind grain at his mill. This was the 



52 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



first effort to plant feudal conditions in America. It 
did not work well. Neither did other attempts (§§50, 54). 
87. The Indian war. After the patroons had taken up 
their great estates, other settlers had to invade the hunt- 
ing grounds of the Indians. Neither the settlers nor the 
red men liked this. Finally war broke out between 

them. The peo- 
ple suffered a 
great deal, and 
finally demanded 
a share in the 
government. It 
was refused. 

88. The people 
demand self-gov- 
ernment. Peter 
vStuyvesant, the 
new governor, was 
heartily welcomed 




NEW NETUERL\NU \\U TIIL 



(1647). But he 
made himself unpopular by persecuting Baptists and 
Quakers, and by refusing the people any real part in 
managing the affairs of the colony. They appealed to 
Holland, and the town of New Amsterdam received 
its own government. The town now had 800 people 

(1653). 

The people objected to paying for a great walP^ built 
by Stuyvesant to keep out the Indians. They came 
together and pronounced the governor a great tyrant. 
He dismissed them, declaring he obtained his right from 
God and the Company, This statement showed the 
people that they would not get representative government 
from Stuyvesant. 



ENGLISH RULE IN NEW YORK 



53 



89. New Netherland surrenders (1664). Holland and 
England had become rivals on the sea. England cut off 
the Dutch trade from the colonies by the Navigation 
Acts (§179). Terrific sea battles in the EngHsh Channel 
were fought between the Dutch and Cromwell's ships. 
Parliament made more laws against Dutch trade in the 




THE DUTCH MOTHERS BEGGING STUYVESANT TO SURRENDER 

time of Charles II, and war followed. English warships 
appeared before New Amsterdam, and Stuyvesant called 
upon the people to defend their colony. But they 
refused; they remembered his tyranny and the freer 
governments around them. Good Dutch mothers, with 
tears in their eyes, begged him to surrender. "Let it 
be so. I had rather be carried to my grave," said the 
brave old governor (1664).^^ 

ENGLISH RULE IN NEW YORK 

90. Meaning of the surrender. From Maine to the 
Carolinas the English now had one unbroken line of 
colonies. New Amsterdam was named New York, and 



54 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

Fort Orange was called Albany.^^ The settlers were dis- 
appointed, for they did not get a representative assembly 




A VIEW OF THE CITY AND HARBOR OF NEW AMSTERDAM (NEW YORK), 1656 

immediately, but they did get complete toleration in 
religious matters. In the terms of surrender the English 
made it very easy for the Dutch. No property was 
destroyed. They permitted Governor Stuyvesant to 
retire to his Bowery ^^ or farm, and live out his days in 
peace. The King granted the colony to his brother, the 
Duke of York. 

91. Progress toward representative government. The 
"Duke's Laws," made by a convention of the people, 
were in the right direction: election of town officers by 
landholders, trial by jury, and freedom of worship. 

Andros (§77) was made governor and opposed an 
assembly, but it is said that William Penn urged the 
Duke of York to grant one. Governor Dongan brought 
the news of the Duke's consent (1682). The assembly 
was elected by landholders, made a good set of laws, drew 
up a "Charter of Liberties," and sent them over for the 
Duke's approval. But the Duke was now King James II 
(§77), and not only refused to consent to the Charter of 
Liberties but destroyed the assembly so happily begun. 



NEW SWEDEN OR DELAWARE 55 

92. A representative assembly established. It took 
two revolutions to get a representative assembly: a 
revolution in England and one in New York. When it 
was known in the colony that James II had been driven 
from the throne a bold German shopkeeper, Leisler, 
took charge of the militia and ruled in the name of 
William and Mary. But many of the wealthier people 
not only opposed Leisler's military rule, but did not like 
to see the government in the hands of a common man. 
Governor Slaughter arrived, seized Leisler, tried him, and 
when drunk signed his death warrant. William and 
Mary granted New York a representative assembly. 
The people were rewarded after half a century of struggle. 

NEW SWEDEN OR DELAWARE 

93. Founding New Sweden (1638). Just before New 
Sweden was begun, the name of Gustavus Adolphus was 
on every tongue in Europe. It was the time of the Thirty 
Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, at 
the head of a well-trained army defeated every general 
sent against him." The Swedish people caught the enthu- 
siasm of their great King and planted a colony on the 
Delaware where Wilmington now stands. They named 
it Christina, after their queen. 

94. A part of New Netherland (1655). The Dutch 
had already planted a post on the Delaware and looked 
with jealous eye upon Christina. Just as soon as a good 
chance came, Peter Stuyvesant sent a fleet of seven ships 
to compel the fort's surrender. When New Netherland 
became New York, Delaware became a part of it (1664). 

95. Delaware won by the Quakers (1682). Maryland 
needed Delaware to extend her possessions to Delaware 
Bay, but William Penn, the friend of the Duke of York, 



56 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



won the prize and added it to Pennsylvania to give an 
outlet to the sea. The people of Delaware finally ob- 
tained an assembly and a deputy governor of their own. 
The colony was returned to Penn's control (1693-1705), 
but finally its assembly was restored. Delaware was not 
backward in the Revolution. 



NEW JERSEY 

96. Early settlements. The Dutch claimed the terri- 
tory of what is now New Jersey. They built fur trading 
posts; the principal one was 
at Bergen. When New Neth- 
erland fell to the English, 
the Duke of York gave the 
country from the Hudson to 
the Delaware to two favorites, 
Berkeley and Carteret (1664). 
The name ' ' New Jersey ' ' was 
given this region to honor 
Carteret, who had won fame 
by defending the island of 
Jersey against the soldiers of 
ii Cromwell (^73). The owners 
were generous, giving to the 
colony a governor, a council, 
an elective assembly, and 
toleration for religious sects. 
Elizabethtown was settled 
(1665), and New Haven 
people displeased at the fate of 
their colony, settled Newark (§81). They organized a 
town government and decreed that only members of the 
church could vote. 




PENNSYLVANIA 57 

97. East and West Jersey. The owners of New Jersey 
charged settlers a small sum for the use of the land. The 
settlers objected because many of them had paid the 
Indians for the land. To escape the quarrel Berkeley 
sold West Jersey to the Quakers. "We put the power 
in the people," said the Quaker owners. Four hundred 
Quakers immediately left England and founded Bur- 
lington (1677). WilHam Penn, other Friends, and Scotch 
Presbyterians, bought East Jersey from Carteret's heirs. 

98. New Jersey and the Duke of York. The Duke of 
York repented giving away so rich a part of his possessions. 
He tried to join it to New York, but the people were 
strongly opposed to this. William Penn urged the case 
against it with such good arguments that he had his way, 
but Andros was made governor of New Jersey as well as 
of the colonies to the eastward (§77). 

99. New Jersey a royal province (1702). The old 
trouble over rents arose once more. This time the settlers 
resolved to end the matter by an appeal to arms. But 
the owners were now Quakers and opposed to war. To 
escape the awkward position, they turned the colony over 
to the king. New Jersey was now given the same gov- 
ernor as New York but had its own independent assem- 
bly. The separation came in 1738. New Jersey now 
enjoyed toleration, but as in most of the colonies, only 
property holders could vote. The rapid growth of New 
Jersey was not only due to her liberal government, but 
to her genial climate and her freedom from Indian troubles. 

PENNSYLVANIA THE GREAT QUAKER COLONY 

100. The beginnings of the Quakers. Out of the 

troublesome times of Cromwell when Puritan fought 
against Cavalier (§73), no nobler sect was born than the 



58 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



Quakers. They were even more opposed to forms and 
ceremonies than were the Puritans (§6i). They had 
been chased out of almost every colony but Rhode Island 
(§75)- The corner-stone of their belief was that truth is 
found out by Hstening to an "inward voice." 

loi. How their teachings made for 
democracy. All men are equal, since 
every man possesses the divine inward 
light. Hence no titles or honors 
should be given to any man, and no 
one should bow or remove the hat for 
any one, not even the king. Only 
"thee" and "thou" and "friend" or 
the given name should be used when 
speaking to people. Such disrespect 
was a hard blow at feudal society (§2). 
The Quaker went farther: he was 
against paid ministers. He even 
refused to take an oath in court, or to 
These points were a direct challenge 
to the church and to the king's government. Scores 
were thrown into jail for even beHeving in these doctrines. 
102. William Pemi the greatest among the Quakers. 
William Penn was the son of Admiral Penn, the friend of 
Charles II. He was sent to Oxford where the aristocracy 
went to school. Here he was a favorite: a student and 
an athlete. He became a Quaker. It was as if a bomb- 
shell had exploded at his father's feet. He was driven 
from home, but nothing could change him.''** His father 
finally forgave him. 

William Penn was saddened by the cruel persecution 
of the Quakers. He himself was thrown into the foul 
EngHsh jails again and again. His success in the Jerseys 




A TYPICAL QUAKER 

bear arms in war 



PENNSYLVANIA 



59 



(§97) led him to resolve to spend his fortune in founding 
a colony for the Quakers in America. Fortunately, 
Charles II offered to 




science without regard to nation, sect, or color; gov- 
ernment for the people and conducted by them; reform 
of criminals; trial by jury for both whites and Indians. 

Penn published the news of his "Holy Experiment" 
far and wide. He wrote to the settlers in Delaware that 
he was not coming "to make his fortune great." How 
the Quakers, as well as others, crowded to go! Over 
3,000 sailed the first year for the banks of the Delaware. 
Over 8,000 were there within five years. No such migra- 
tion had been seen since Puritan times (§69), 

104. Penn goes to America (1682). It was a happy 
company that set sail from England with Penn at its head. 
The shouts that greeted its arrival at Newcastle showed 



6o 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



the joy in the settlers' hearts at seeing WilHam Penn. 
They wore farm clothes, and went through a ceremony 
which was very strange for America. One man gave him 
water and soil, signifying that Penn was owner, and 
another gave him turf and twig, showing that he controlled 
what grew upon the land. All of this belonged to the 




PENN TREATING WITH THE INDIANS 



feudal system of old Europe. But how could such ideas 
grow alongside the democracy of the Quakers! 

Penn took care to visit the Indians. He won their 
hearts. He ate with them, danced at their feasts, took 
part in their games, and gave them presents. Under the 
shade of a great elm he made a treaty with them which 
remained unbroken. 

105. Founds the City of Brotherly Love (1683). Penn 
looked around the region and selected the site of the 
city of Philadelphia, and there laid out the streets at 
right angles, a new plan for a city. Settlers crowded in so 
rapidly that many had to live in caves dug in the banks of 



PENNSYLVANIA 



6t 




:11^^}^-]_1 



the Delaware until homes could be built. In the next three 
years 2,500 people had made this city their home. It 
passed Boston 
in 1760, and 
for the rest 
of that century 
it led the cities 
of the United 
States in pop- 
ulation. Phila- 
delphia be- 
came the home 
of Benjamin 
Franklin, the 
wisest man in 
America. 

106. Penn's 

troubles. From the beginning almost, Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania disputed about the boundary line between them. 
This was not settled for a long time. Then two EngHsh- 
men came and ran the now famous "Mason and Dixon's 
Line." This line, in the popular mind, was made the 
boundary between the slave and free states in the quarrels 
between the North and the South. 

Penn was not always wise in choosing governors. 
The people often objected to the ones he named. 
Then, too, the settlers forgot what Penn had done for 
them. They objected to the small amount of "quit- 
rent" given to Penn (§104), This quarrel ran on to the 
Revolution. But the colony still prospered. People 
came from Germany and Ireland as well as from England, 
until only Massachusetts and Virginia had a larger popu- 
lation than Pennsylvania. 



62 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

For teachers: Fiske, The Dutch and Quaker Colonics; Hart, Con- 
kniporai'ies, I, chaps, xxii-xxvi; Bassett, Short History, 85-88. 

For pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 195-217; Hart, Source Book, 85-88; 
Coffin, Old Times in the Colonics, 195-233, 291-302; Hart, Source 
Reader, I, 144-148, 174. 

Fiction: Irving, Knickerbocker's History of New York; Brooks, In 
Leister's Times; Bynner, The Begum's Daughter; Bennett, Barnaby Lee; 
Otis, Peter of New Amsterdam, Stephen of Philadelphia. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Write imaginary letters from early Philadelphia to friends in 
England. 2. Write points in a debate whether the Puritans or the 
Quakers were more democratic. 3. You are among the settlers 
receiving Penn on his first visit. What did the settlers say before his 
coming and what after his arrival? 4. Write us about the gov- 
ernment established by Penn. Tell how it differed from that of 
the other colonies. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

THE PEOPLE 

107. How the people grew democratic. We have 
already noted (§2) how the people of Europe lived when 
America was discovered. Only a few of the nobles, hke 
Lord Fairfax, George Washington's neighbor, came to 




GREENWAY COURT, THE VIRGINIA HOME OF LORD FAIRFAX 

the colonies. A large number of English gentlemen 
migrated to better their condition. These gentlemen were 
between the nobles and the middle class, but it was from 
the middle class that the colonies drew most of their 
settlers. 

But feudal ideas did not succeed well in America. 
New conditions had to be faced. The settlers had to 

63 



64 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

become accustomed to a new climate. They had to clear 
away the great forests in order to have a place for their 
farms and had always to keep a lookout for the Indian. 
The manner of living tended to put people on the same 
level. Travelers in America during colonial times were 
struck by the democratic conditions among the people. 

io8. How the people were distributed. In colonial 
days only a few people lived in cities. The rest were 
farmers. Some lived in small villages, as in New England, 
and went out each day to work on the farm. In the 
South were great tobacco and rice plantations on which 
people lived. In the middle colonies, where no Indian 
danger threatened, the farmers occupied their own 
farms. 

In early days Boston was the leading city, but Phila- 
delphia soon overtook it (§105). The other important 
places, in order of size were New York, Charleston, Balti- 
more, and Williamsburg. 

In the early part of this period the settlers located on 
bays and rivers near the sea because they longed for 
easy connection with the mother country. After a time, 
hardy pioneers pushed up the rivers to the mountains. 
Some had even crossed the mountains and Were bringing 
back wonderful tales of the country beyond. 

109. The English and non-English. The colonies 
always had more Englishmen in them than people from 
the Continent. The New Englanders were almost en- 
tirely English. Maryland and Virginia came next. 

The middle colonies boasted the largest number of non- 
English. The Dutch and Germans in New York and the 
Germans and Scotch-Irish in Pennsylvania, gave enter- 
prising and industrious classes to these colonies. The 
Germans were driven by persecution from their homes 



THE PEOPLE 



65 



along the Necker and Rhine. Many occupied the fairest 
portions of the Hudson and Mohawk Valley. The great 
majority, however, went to Pennsylvania, where they 
settled along the banks of the Susquehanna, forming one- 
third of the population of that colony. Some of their 
quaint ways may still be found in the nooks and corners 
of that old state. Germans, in 
smaller numbers, settled in the 
Carohnas and Georgia. 

The most interesting and charm- 
ing people migrating to America 
were the Huguenots (§22). They 
were driven from their beautiful 
homes in France by the cruelty of 
Louis XIV. More than 1,000,000 
fled to other European countries. 
Many came to America. Every 
colony was only too glad to get 
them. They settled in goodly 
numbers in Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia, and Charleston.^^ 
no. The Scotch-Irish. Of all 
the settlers the boldest and most aggressive were the 
Scotch- Irish, whose forefathers had lived long ago in 
Scotland and northern England. They came latest 
into the colonies. They, too, were forced to leave 
their native country — Ireland — because of the hard 
laws of the Enghsh Parliament. Of all the people 
seeking freedom from oppression, none sent so many 
to America as the Scotch-Irish. It is estimated that 
more than 500,000, first and last, came to this coun- 
try. Philadelphia was their favorite landing-place, 
though many went to Charleston. Thousands remained 

4 




A HUGUENOT GENTLEMAN 



66 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

in Pennsylvania, but other thousands swarmed along the 
mountains going southward; they met and mingled with 
their brethren moving north. They owned few slaves, 
Hved simply in their frontier homes, and made the boldest 
Indian fighters in America. It was the Scotch-Irish that 
broke over the mountains into Kentucky and Tennessee 
and defended those regions against the Indians. They 
made up the rank and file of the men who joined the 
expeditions against Vincennes and King's Mountain. 

111. Social classes among servants. The colonists 
in migrating left a country where many social differences 
existed. In colonial days there were more social differ- 
ences than now. Even the servants had their classes.^" 
Lowest of these were negro slaves. They were lowest 
because they were slaves forever unless some kind- 
hearted master set them free. Even among slaves there 
were classes: field hands and household servants. All 
the colonies held slaves. Only the Quaker lifted his voice 
against slavery. 

Next above the slaves were the white servants. They 
were of two general classes — those who were forced to 
come to America and those who wanted to come. 

112. Forced immigrants. Sometimes very poor young 
men and women and even children were kidnapped in the 
streets of London or other cities and sent to America to be 
sold for a time. They were called indented servants. 
They were fed and clothed, and could be whipped. After 
serving for a term of years as farm workers or house 
servants they won their freedom. The boldest went to 
the frontier where land was cheaper and where social 
differences did not count for much. 

Another class of forced immigrants were vagabonds 
and convicts. The laws of England were very severe in 



THE PEOPLE 



67 



those days. A judge could sentence one to death for 
picking a man's pocket or for stealing five shillings from a 
store. Many humane judges sent prisoners to the colonies 
rather than condemn them to death. Numbers of these 
convicts and vagabonds whom England did not wish to 
support were sold for a time in the colonies. After a few 
years of service they were set free to make their own way 
in the world. 

113. The "redemptioners." Many poor people in 
Europe wanted to come to America, but they did not have 
the money to pay for the sea voyage. These, too, were 
called indented servants because they signed a contract 
or "indenture," to serve the captain of a ship for a term 
of years, usually four or five, if 
he would carry them across the 
ocean. When the ship reached 
America the captain would sell the 
contracts to some planter or farmer 
and the immigrants would work for 
him until their term of service was 
complete. This seems hard, but 
many poor people came to America 
in this way. 

114. Social classes among free- 
men. The small farmer, shop- 
keeper, and ■ mechanic made the 
second social group. They stood 
quite high when we think of char- 
acter. They were a sturdy class, 
bound to get on by saving and 
by educating their boys and girls, 
great majority in every colony, 
they from the peasant farmers of Europe (§2)! 




-.--^M 



jt^?iS^« 



A COLONIAL GENTLEMAN 

This class formed a 
How different were 



68 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



To the third and highest class belonged the educated and 
the well-to-do people. It is very clear how wealth and 
education had changed classes since Columbus' time. 

115. How people showed their rank and standing. 
The servant was extremely polite to people above him. 
He took off his hat and bowed low when meeting them. A 
great deal of respect was shown to the upper classes,*^ 
much more than now. If a girl married above her rank, 
her parents rejoiced at her good fortune, but if below, 
she was pitied by her friends. At school and college 
students were sometimes seated, or names were put in 
the catalogues, according to the rank of the father. 

116. Poor men dressed plainly. The poorer classes 
sometimes wore moccasins made of leather and fur, and 

leather breeches, when cloth 
was not to be had. Since 
colonial times hunters and 
trappers on the frontier 
have worn a peculiar kind 
of clothes. 

The royal governors made 
a great effort to impress 
their importance upon the 
people. Other rich persons 
tried to imitate them. The 
men wore wigs, rich velvet 
coats, knee breeches, silk 
stockings, and carried gold- 
headed canes. Very fash- 
ionable young men wore 
swords and red coats. Fash- 
ionable women powdered their hair and dressed in the 
latest London styles. 




A HARDY BACKWOODSMAN 



THE PEOPLE 



69 



117. The royal governor's reception in Virginia. In 

no colony was the Old World pomp and pride kept up so 




THE GOVERNOR S RECEPTION IN THE COLONIAL DAYS, ONE OF THE GREAT 
EVENTS OF THE YEAR 

well as in Virginia. The great social event was the gov- 
ernor's reception to celebrate the meeting of the House 
of Burgesses (§41). It was an interesting topic for talk 
among the women folks for days before. In his great 
coach decorated with the family coat of arms and drawn 
by fine horses, the planter and his family journeyed to the 
capital. Before and behind them rode negro servants 
on horseback, all proud to belong to such a master. 

What noisy scenes in the old capital town of Williamsburg ! 
How grand and stately the reception! The governor 
and his wife received the people. How happy the 
planters if the governor spoke kindly to them ! George and 
Martha Washington were often seen at these receptions. 

118. Rent day on the patroon's estate. On the patroon's 
great farm (§86) took place many interesting events. 
Among them was rent day. His house was big with many 



70 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



large rooms. The- fine furniture spoke of great wealth. 
Around this mansion ran many walks lined with flowers. 
Near by stood barns with bins for grain and stalls for 
cattle and horses. Nearer still were smaller houses for 
servants. How like the estate of a European lord ! 

When rent day came around, the small farmers appeared. 
They brought the patroon's share of the crops in wagons. 
It was a holiday, and every one was dressed in his best. 
A great feast was prepared: an ox, sheep, or pigs were 
roasted, and white and black servants ran to and fro. 
The people ate, drank, and made merry. Everybody 
declared that the patroon was a good fellow. But once 
at home and hard at work, these farmers could not help 
wishing the farms were their own (§86). 

HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 

119. Colonial homes. The first settlers had to build 
homes in the forests. They joined hands and built 




T\PIC^L NEW 1 NCI Wn HOME 



houses out of logs. When the cracks had been stopped 
with clay and sticks, when the great fireplace had been 



HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 



71 



finished, a door had been cut, and windows made by past- 
ing in greased paper, the family was ready to move in. 
The majority of houses were made of rough logs, but later 
some were made of dressed logs. Great notches were cut in 
each end of these logs. This enabled the men to fasten 
them together. After the sawmill came, "frame" houses 
began to appear. 

The earliest furniture for log houses was produced by 
using the ax, saw, and auger. "Puncheons" were made 
by splitting logs in two. The floor, when there was one, 
was made by laying down puncheons with the flat 
side up. Tables and chairs were made of puncheons 
with legs. Sometimes a bed of leaves and skins for the 
boys was placed in the "loft." To this the boys climbed 
on pegs driven in the wall.^^ 

In cities and on plantations the rich lived in finer 
homes. They imported furniture and even bricks from 
England to make their houses. The homes of Hancock 



of Boston, Livingston 
delphia, Byrd of Vir- 
ginia, and the Rut- 
ledges of Charleston, 
were furnished with 
the best the markets 
of Europe afforded. 

120. Church build- 
ings and blockhouses. 
No sooner had the little 
community built its 
homes than the men 
went to work building 
a church. The church 
was not heated, and 



of New York, Morris 




72 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



people in the North carried foot-warmers and kept on 
hats and overcoats during the service. The men carried 
their guns to be ready for an Indian attack. If there was 
great danger from Indians, the men built a blockhouse 
first. It was built of great heavy logs, had portholes 
and an overhanging story. When the alarm of danger 
was given, all the people for miles around ran to the 
blockhouse for safety. For more than 200 years the log 
cabin and the blockhouse followed the frontier across the 
continent. 

121. The colonial kitchen. In the cabin the parlor, 
living room, and kitchen were one. The kitchen was not 
well furnished. In all there was the great fireplace before 
which cooking was done, but there was no wood, coal, 
nor gas range. There were the iron skillet, copper kettle, 
the iron pot, and maybe the great crane on which pots 
were hung. Bread was baked in the hot ashes, in the 
Dutch oven, or in the skillet. There were wooden and 
pewter knives and forks, earthern bowls and dishes and 

^ in a few kitchens 
"silver plate." A 
few wooden 
shelves, a wooden 
puncheon above 
the fireplace, and a 
_ potbench took the 
place of pantry 
and cabinet. To 
one side usually 
stood the spinning 
wheel. And in a 
few kitchens were to be seen chairs or a table brought 
from the old home in England. The poorest kitchens 




COLONIAL KITCHEN 



HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 



73 




WHALE- 
OIL 
LAMP 




now would have made the colonial dame living in a 
mansion open her eyes in wonder. 

122. Northern and southern homes. 

In the North where winters were long 
and hard, houses were closely built with 
few doors and windows. There were no 
stoves, and the great fireplace was the 
only means of heating. In the South the 
houses were made to keep cool: their 
verandas and balconies were large, and 
a great hall usually divided the house. 

Colonial days seem far away when we 
remember that there was no electricity, 
gas, or even kerosene lamps. Each 
household made its own candles or used 
tallow dips. Very few boasted of whale oil lamps. 

123. Pastimes of colonial days. The colonies had some 
games common to every section. One of these was danc- 
ing. While the people of New England frowned upon 
this pastime, the young folks in the Dutch settlements and 
in the South often made merry to the sound of the violin. 
Sewing and quilting "bees" belonged to each colony; they 
gave pleasant work for mothers and daughters in the 
daytime, and in the evening young men happened in to 
join in some other gay sport. Another pastime common 
to all parts was boating. On the large rivers it was sloop 
sailing with the decks large enough for guests. 

Southern people have always been famed as horseback 
riders. They had to be good horsemen, for their homes 
were far apart. The pastime peculiar to the South was 
fox hunting. Each planter had his stable of horses and 
his kennel of hounds. Old folks, as well as young, joined 
in the chase from early morning until the fox was caught. 



74 



'HE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



The boys of Boston and of Charleston played football, 
not much after the present-day style, however. They 
^ _ _ had many kinds 

of ball games 
such as "town 
around" out of 
which baseball 
grew, and "bull 
pen." Wrestling 
matches were in- 
dulged in by the 
more vigorous 
boys, and jump- 
ing games were common. Winter sports were enjoyed, 
such as skating and sleigh riding, in the North. 

In the South and among the Dutch, simple plays upon 
the stage, gotten up by local talent, gave entertainment 
to the people. The Dutch and Germans in this country 
made great preparations for enjoying Christmas time. 




FOX-HUNTING IN VIRGINIA 



COLONIAL EDUCATION 

124. Going to school under difficulties. Everybody 
had to work in old colony days, even the children. This 
made it hard for boys and girls to go to school. There 
were few books then, and little money to buy them. In 
the South attending school was difficult indeed. The 
children lived many miles apart, and roads were very 
poor. Schoolhouses were built without much attention 
to the comfort of the pupils. If they had floors, they 
were made of puncheons (§119). This was true also of 
seats and writing desks. The only light came through 
windows covered with oiled paper. The teacher was a 
man who had little sympathy with pranks of youngsters. 



COLONIAL EDUCATION 



75 




^^^^3-^- -^' 



NEW ENGLAND SCHOOLHOUSE 



He knew how to keep them busy only by the free 
use of the rod. Children frequently studied "out loud," 
and as a rule were not 
divided into classes, but 
each child recited his 
lesson alone. 

Only the boys were 
allowed to go to the 
pubhc schools. The girls 
got no training outside 
of the home, except 
when permitted' to at- 
tend a private school 
for girls, "dame schools," as they were called. 

125. Schools in the different colonies. The Puritan 
was a great believer in the Bible. Hence his children 
must be taught to read. When no teacher appeared he 
usually employed the minister. The minister was often 
the teacher in all the colonies. In 1647 the legislature of 
Massachusetts required every town of fifty families to 
provide a school for its boys, and every town of a hundred 
families to have a grammar school. 

The EngHsh neglected the schools which the Dutch 
had begun in almost every town in New Netherland. 
Just before the surrender of New Netherland a Latin 
school was established in New Amsterdam that drew 
students from far-away South Carolina. In New Jersey, 
soon after 1700, every county was required to have a 
school supported by public taxation. The most famous 
of all Philadelphia schools was the Penn Charter School. 
It threw open its doors to both boys and girls, and to the 
poor without price, and to the rich for a fee. Outside this 
vigorous city, schools did not flourish in Pennsylvania, 



76 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

although parents who failed to teach boys and girls to 
read and write were fined. 

In the South we have seen why schools were few (§124). 
Virginia tried to establish a free school, but it did not work 
well. That famous old tyrant, Governor Berkeley, in 
writing to the king, thanked God that Virginia had neither 
printing press nor free schools. In vSouth CaroHna free 
schools were maintained by the gifts of generous-hearted 
people. 

But planters everywhere had their children taught by 
tutors or by a minister. 

126. Colleges of colonial times. For half a century 
Harvard at Cambridge, Massachusetts (1636) remained 
the only college in the colonies. William and Mary 
College at Williamsburg (1693), named to honor the new 

^ ,.; :x ^^ "^1 




HARVARD COLLEGE IX THE EARLY DAYi 



monarchs of England, came to bless Virginia. The cen- 
tury was a year old when Yale was founded at New 



COLONIAL EDUCATION 



77 



Haven, Connecticut. Another half century sHpped by 
before New England founded Brown (1764). Dartmouth 











WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE ABOUT I725 



at Hanover, New Hampshire, was soon added (1769). 
The middle colonies founded Princeton at Princeton, 
New Jersey (1746), King's College, now Columbia in 
New York City (1754), Pennsylvania at Philadelphia 
(1755), and Rutgers at New Brunswick, New Jersey 
(1770). 

Colonial colleges were little better than high schools. 
They took boys in their "teens" and put them through a 
stiff course in four years. Governor Belcher of New Jer- 
sey said of Princeton College ' ' that a seminary for religion 
and learning should be promoted in this Province; for 
the better enlightening the minds and polishing the man- 
ners, of this and the neighboring colonies." Hence 
colonial colleges trained ministers in the main. Their 



78 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

courses were made up largely of the ancient languages 
and mathematics. In 1755 Benjamin Franklin was the 
chief founder of an academy which placed as much empha- 
sis upon English as upon the ancient languages. This 
school became the University of Pennsylvania. 

The college life of those days would seem queer to us 
now. The students were not so democratic as they now 
are, although there were no fraternities (§115). Organ- 
ized athletics were absent, and the boys spent their leisure 
in pranks for which they were tried by college courts and 
punished by college officers. The colleges of colonial 
days were modeled after Oxford and Cambridge Uni- 
versities. It was the custom for the planters in the 
southern colonies to send their sons to England for an 
education. ^^ 

127. Self-educated men. The great majority of able 
men in colonial times had been to college either at home or 
abroad. Some had not, and among them were Washing- 
ton and Franklin. They were educated in the "Uni- 
versity of the World." One other such man was John 
Bartram of Philadelphia, pronounced by a great man to 
be the "greatest natural botanist in the world. "^^ 

128. Reading matter. Libraries. The first printing 
press in the colonies was set up in Cambridge, Massa- 
chusetts, in 1639. How slow the world would seem to us 
without a newspaper of any kind! The earliest one, 
the Boston News Letter, appeared in 1704. Before the 
Revolution every colony had one or more newspapers. 
When the first daily appeared, the Pennsylvania Packet, 
the colonies must have thought they were progressive 
indeed. 

The one book found in most colonial homes was the 
Bible. It was the favorite textbook in schools. Other 



RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 79 

books were scarce. Town after town had no public 
library. Charleston had the only important library in 
any southern city. A few individuals had, for that time, 
good libraries. The largest was owned by a wealthy 
Virginia planter, William Byrd, founder of the town of 
Richmond . His library numbered 3,500 volumes . Cotton 
Mather, the great New England preacher, had a library 
of 3,000 volumes. 

129. Peter Zenger's trial. Near the close of the colo- 
nial period, a New York newspaper — Peter Zenger, 
editor — criticized the governor. The governor had 
Zenger arrested. His trial created intense excitement, 
and Zenger was made to feel how dangerous it was 
to find fault publicly with a man high in authority. He 
sent for a great Quaker lawyer, Andrew Hamilton. 
Hamilton declared : "It is not the cause^of a poor printer 
nor of New York alone, . . . . it is the cause of liberty. ' ' 
The judges set Zenger free, and the crowd shouted, and 
the people of New York gave Zenger a great banquet. 
Never again was the right of free speech in such danger 
in America. 

RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 

130. Many sects in the colonies. Down to the Revolu- 
tion the EngHsh church was estabHshed in Virginia. 
Everybody paid taxes for its support. It was also, for 
a time, the established church for Maryland and the 
Carolinas. 

The New England Puritans were Congregationalists 
(§70), and in all the colonies but Rhode Island the church 
was tax supported. Among the Scotch-Irish settlers, 
found in all colonies, the Presbyterians were by far the 
strongest. The Dutch Reformed people were more 




GOOSE CREEK CHURCH SOL TI 



80 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

numerous in New York and in New Jersey than in the other 
colonies. The Baptists were strongest in Rhode Island. 

Among the Ger- 
mans settling in 
America the Luth- 
erans were most 
numerous. There 
were Moravians, 
Mennonites, and 
the Dunkards in 
Pen n syl vania. 
Quakers were 
found in nearly 
every colony, but 
the middle colo- 
nies were their home. The Methodist church, founded 
by John Wesley (1740) in England, did not make much 
progress until after the Revolution. 

This great variety of sects gradually came to tolerate 
each other as the result of bitter experience. 

131. Severe church ways. The minister. The colo- 
nists were very much in earnest about reHgion. The 
members of one sect not only believed other sects wrong, 
but to be avoided. In almost all of the first colonies the 
law compelled a man to go to one church (§75). Protest- 
ing against this law got Roger WilHams into trouble (§71). 

The minister was a great man in the colonies, except 
among the Quakers who had no paid minister (§101). ' 
He was a college bred man as a rule, and was treated 
with respect. His advice was asked by the head of the 
house and by the officers of the colony. 

132. People strict in keeping the Sabbath. On Sunday 
little work was done even in the home. Every person, 



RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 



8i 



dressed in his best, went to church to hear long sermons 
and visit a bit with neighbors. In New England if any one 
fell asleep during the sermon, an officer gently tapped him 
on the head. 

133. Great colonial preachers. One of the great 
ministers in early New England was Cotton Mather. 
He was a college man and could read the ancient lan- 
guages. While in his "teens" he preached his first ser- 
mon. He dipped into science a bit and wrote letters to 
learned men on the Continent. He was a great figure 
in the witchcraft trouble (§136). Another great preacher 
was Whitefield (§59). He founded in Georgia the first 
orphan asylum in America, and was one of the greatest 
revivaHsts that ever lived. He came to New England, 
where Jonathan Edwards had produced the "great 
awakening," a religious revival. Whitefield split the 
Puritans in two divisions by his preaching (1744). 




PLRIT^Nb GOING TO CHLRCH 



134. Punishment severe among the colonists. The 

law was cruel in colonial times. Men suffered death for 



82 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

many deeds for which they would now go to jail, be fined, 
or even be set free with a serious talk from the judge 
(§112). But even then the laws were not as severe in the 
colonies as in England. 

Whipping the children in the family for all kinds of 
wrongdoing was very common. Few kindly hands were 
lifted to improve bad children. 

135. Punishment in public. In colonial times punish- 
ment in public was the fashion, but now it is in private. 
The gallows on which men were hanged stood in a public 
place, and in nearly every town the pillory and the stocks 
stood where people could see offenders duly punished. 
A ducking-stool stood ready for the woman who slandered 
her neighbors. Scores of men in colonial times bore 
marks on face and hand made by a^ red-hot iron. A 
milder way was to hang around a man's neck a card 
bearing a word showing his offense. The purpose seemed 
to be to strike terror into the hearts of evildoers. The 
one bright spot among the colonies was Pennsylvania 
with the laws made by the Quakers for the reform of evil- 
doers. 

136. The witchcraft craze. Over two hundred years 
ago, the people in all countries believed in witches. They 
thought persons ugly in form could become the com- 
panions of evil spirits and obtain their aid in bringing 
cruel punishment on those they hated, or "bewitched." 
In 1692 some young people at Salem, Massachusetts, 
acted strangely. They declared that certain persons had 
bewitched them. The excitement spread, and the jail 
was full of innocent people. Nineteen were hanged before 
the people of Salem realized that they would all be in 
jail if the craze kept on. They stopped it. Europe, one 
hundred years afterward, burned people for being witches. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 83 

IXDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 

137. Colonial labor. After the early fever for gold- 
hunting had passed away, the settlers began to work. 
They found more work and harder than they had expected. 
But they found one thing in plenty : free land. All land 
in Europe had been taken up by men owning great estates 
(§2). We have seen, too, how such men tried to bring 
the same plan of land-holding to America (§54, 57). It 
failed because America was too big. The settlers who 
wanted to own their own farms needed only to go a little 
farther west where there was free land in abundance. The 
result has been, even to our day, that nowhere else has 
labor owned so many of the farms it tilled. How different 
in the Old World ! There the wage earner and the tenant 
farmer are underlings, but in America the farmer is a free 
man. 

138. Common occupations. Farming was the one 
occupation most common, because both food and clothing 
came from it. The North had more farmers than the 
South, because northern farms were small while southern 
plantations were large. None the less, farming was the 
only great occupation in the South. No other could 
compare with it. In all the colonies manufacturing, 
shipbuilding, commerce, fishing, and fur trading were the 
other means of winning a living. In the North many 
people enjoyed the benefits that came from these occupa- 
tions, while in the South only the planters, the few, 
enjoyed the best results of farming. 

139. Ways and means of farming. The settlers 
brought to America the old ways of farming used by their 
fathers. They rested the soil every third year to keep it 
from wearing out. But when the ground was newly 
cleared, the American farmer did not think even of this. 



84 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



wood. 



When the land began to wear out all the settler had to do 
was to clear a new field or move farther west and take up 
new land. Land was cheap in those days. This waste- 
ful and destructive way of treating the soil has continued 
in some parts to our day. Then the farmer did not 
know what crops are best for the soil. Now we do. 
Now we rotate crops; that is, the farmer raises a different 
crop each year on the same piece of ground. This rests 
the soil and is much less wasteful than the old custom of 
letting the land lie fallow every third year. 

The very tools used by the colonists were ancient. 
They were nearly all made of wood. The colonial plow 
was Hke that of the Romans. The harrow, an 
awkward tool, had 
The spade, 
the rake, and the 
fork were also 
wooden. The 
hoe for digging, 
the scythe for 
cutting grass, 
and the sickle 
for reaping grain, were made of iron. It is now clear 
why farmers in old colony times raised but a small amount 
of any one crop. Because of the primitive tools in use, 
there were no fields with miles of growing corn or acres 
upon acres of waving grain such as may be seen today. 
Machinery to help cultivate and gather the crops makes 
the difference. 

The sickle was capable of cutting only a single handful 
of grain at a time. Men now living have seen the farmer 
use his horses to tramp out the grain on the bare ground 
or on the barn floor. He then threw the grain up against 




TOOLS USED BY THE COLONIAL FARMER 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



85 



a briskly blowing wind to drive away the chaff. If he 
had a sieve, he put the grain through it to clean it once 
more. It was now ready for the mill. But the mill 
might have been a "hand mill," or a "horse mill," a 
mill turned by a horse hitched to a "sweep." In later 
colonial days water mills were introduced. We can 
understand now why in the North most people had to 
be farmers. 

140. The farmer an independent man. Besides pro- 
ducing what he wanted to eat, the farmer raised flax and 
wool, which his own family made into clothes or bedding. 
Have you never seen the spinning wheel on which our 
great-grandmothers made flax thread ? Or the larger one 
on which they made woolen thread? The power for 
turning the smaller one came from the foot, and for 
turning the larger one, from the hand. The farmers 
family wove and cut and made 
the clothes they wore. Only the 
rich wore clothes imported from 
London. 

Th» farmers of New England 
and the middle states obtained 
the finest sirup and sugar in 
the world from the maple trees 
growing in the woods. Hogs 
ran wild and fed on the nuts of 
the forest. The result was that 
the farmer could have more meat 
than he needed. Besides, he 
added variety to his supply by 
using his rifle on the game in 
the forest. The most independent person in the world 
was the American farmer of the colonial period. 




COLONIAL HOME 



86 



THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 



141. How the planter lived. Some account must be 
given of how the planter managed his great plantation. 




The first planters were careful to locate on ocean front 
or river. This gave them easy communication with their 
neighbors and direct connection with the mother coun- 
try. The planter and his laborers made up a sort of vil- 
lage. They could produce everything on the plantation 
they needed, but not all they wanted. Their leading 
crop was tobacco, if the planter was a Marylander or a 
Virginian ; rice or indigo if he was a Carolinian. If he was 
enterprising, he raised corn and wheat, oats and hay, 
and had herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. 

The planter's family obtained fine clothes, shoes, fur- 
niture, and tableware from the markets of London. The 
planter, like George Washington, had his agent in London 
to whom he gave his orders for goods and to whom he 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 



S7 



sent his products to be sold. Now and then the planter 
ran deeply in debt to London merchants. 

Many of the more trusty slaves were shoemakers, 
carpenters, gardeners, and blacksmiths. The slaves 
were very proud of their master and of the position he 
held in the community. 

142. When the great ship came to the planter's door. 
The annual ship from England landed at the planter's 
own wharf. For weeks everybody talked of its coming, 
the news it was to bring from old friends, and the fine 
clothes and fur- 
niture fresh 
from the old 
English home. 

How all hands 
worked to get 
the tobacco or 
rice or indigo 
ready for the 
great vessel! 
What stir and 
excitement as 
the ship came 
in to view, sailing 
up the river! 
What joy it 
brought to ev- 
ery one! Good 
news from the 
old home, let- 
ters presents, loading the great ship at the planters wharf 

and perhaps some long-absent father or brother or sister I 
Then came the work of unloading what the planter had 




88 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

ordered, and of loading what he had to sell. While this 
work was being done the planter and his family were 
entertaining, in true plantation style, officers of the ship, 
settling accounts, and giving orders for the next year. 

143. The small farmer a jack of all trades. The small 
farmer belonged in every colony. When not busy on 
his farm he engaged in other labor. While game was 
plentiful, he hunted for food and trapped for fur. He 
might turn his attention to lumbering, shipbuilding, car- 
pentering, blacksmithing, dressing leather, or to making 
hats. Boys were kept busy whittling out forks and butter 
paddles for their mothers, or wooden knives, forks, and 
spoons for the table. They made traps in the winter 
for catching game birds and animals. In the South, par- 
ticularly in North Carolina, many people made tar, 
pitch, and turpentine. 

. 144. The fur trader. From colonial days until now, 
trapping and fur trading have gone on. To the early 
settlers it gave one article wanted in Europe. New York 
soon led in this trade. The Dutch were just the people 
to win the friendship of the Indians (§33). Their first 
cargo of furs brought the thrifty Dutchmen $10,000. It 
was the struggle of the early settlers for this trade that 
first drew them to seek lands toward the setting sun. 

145. The fishermen of New England. When New 
England fishing of all kinds was at its best, it brought 
over $1,000,000 per year. Cod fishing began about 1670, 
and in a few years 650 vessels, carrying over 4,000 men, 
were in this industry alone. Twenty, years after whale 
fishing began, 260 ships sailed in search of this monster of 
the ocean. The fish were dried for the market, and the 
whale was cut up for his oil. American ships carried 
these products to almost every market in the world. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 89 

146. The making of ships. Ships were built in every 
colony, but in largest numbers in the North. In fact, 
shipbuilding took its rise in Plymouth soon after the 
colony was founded (§64). It has been said that Cap- 
tain Adrian Block of New Amsterdam built the first, ship 
in the colonies, but New York did not follow up this effort 
immediately. The splendid forests that grew to the 
ocean's edge made it easy for the Americans to build 
the best ships in the world. Very soon the shipbuilders 
in England were sending petitions to Parliament to have 
shipbuiMing stopped in America. The English govern- 
ment wanted a large navy, so they encouraged Americans 
to send naval supplies to England. One of the best results 
of colonial shipbuilding was the call for so many different 
occupations: woodchopping, logging, sawmilling, car- 
pentering, ropemaking, pitchmaking, sailmaking, black- 
smithing, and others. 

147. The iron industry. In all the colonies there was 
iron ore. It was easy to get, for it was found in 
swamps or bogs. Hence it was called "bog iron ore." 
In the southern colonies, the people were too busy with 
tobacco and rice to manufacture iron; they loaded ships 
with the ore and sent it to England. ^^ In the North busi- 
ness men built mills for rolling it into shape so it could 
be used. They made tools for the farmer, the carpenter, 
and the blacksmith, and manufactured articles for the 
home. In 1750 Parliament felt that the iron trade in 
America was cutting into English trade; they passed the 
Iron Works Act, which checked colonial trade in iron 

(§179)- 

148. Colonial manufactures. In colonial days nearly 
everything was made by hand. Then many things 
were made in the same house. Now one thing is 



go THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

made in a great factory filled with machinery driven by 
great engines. Then the father might make shoes or 
furniture while the mother and her daughters spun, 
wove, cut the cloth, and made clothes. 

The hatrnakers called on Parliament to keep American 
hats out of their markets. Parliament answered by pro- 
hibiting the manufacture of hats (1732) (§179). 

149. The manufacture of woolens. From an early 
day the colonies raised sheep for their wool. As they 
grew they made more woolens than they needed. Their 
ships carried the surplus to the West Indies and to 
Europe, where they met English goods. Parliament 
passed its famous Woolens Bill (1699), declaring that no 
wool nor woolen goods should be "exported .... 
out of the said EngHsh plantations to any of the other 
plantatipns or to any place whatsoever." 

Hemp was produced for rope in Maryland and Virginia, 
flax for Hnen in the more northern colonies; and cotton 
in the South had made a small beginning. 

150. Home commerce. The very first trade with 
Indians was for something to eat and furs to wear. The 
Indians loved colors, cloth, glass beads, or other trinkets. 
They soon learned, also, to demand guns and hatchets. 

The rise of towns caused a demand for farm products, 
for dried fish, lumber, and rum. The colonists had 
very little money. Hence most of their trade was 
carried on by giving so many pounds or bushels of one 
thing for so many pounds or bushels of another. This 
way of trading is called barter. 

151. Travel and communication. We have seen that 
early settlers located on harbors or rivers because travel 
by other routes was slow and dangerous. Small rowboats 
and canoes were the means of travel on the smaller rivers. 



INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 91 

On the larger streams articles of trade as well as passen- 
gers made their way in the wind-driven sloop. From city 
to city along the coast travel and trade made the distance 
in small sailing ships. 

As people grew in numbers, they pushed away from 
seacoast and river. Other means of travel were used. 
The Indian trails were followed at first. The season when 
travel was easiest was winter, when the sleigh was used. 
Until almost Revolutionary times there were no roads for 
travel by stagecoach. In 1756 a stagecoach between 
New York and Philadelphia, called the "Flying Ma- 
chine," made ninety miles in three days. A postman 
on horseback carried the mail between the larger towns. 
In 1753 Benjamin Franklin was appointed deputy 
postmaster-general for all the colonies. 

152. Foreign commerce. Articles made in the home- 
land had first rank in the minds of the settlers. This 
made trade with England easy. Tobacco, rice, and 
naval stores (pitch, turpentine, and tar) were shipped out 
by the southern colonies, while the northern and middle 
colonies sent masts, salted fish, lumber, pig iron, flour, and 
salted meat. In return England sent coffee, tea, cutlery, 
silks, wines, cloth, ironware, and implements of various 
kinds. The colonial shipowner often sold his vessel, 
for American ships brought high prices in Europe. 

153. Rum and the African slave trade. The New 
Englander carried some of his goods to the West Indies 
and traded them for sugar and molasses. He took these 
home and manufactured them into rum.^'' A part of the 
rum was sold at home; a part was traded to the Indians 
for furs ; a third part was carried to the West Indies and 
traded for more sugar and molasses; and the rest was 
carried to Africa, where the chiefs were glad to get it in 



92 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

exchange for slaves. The slaves were carried to America 
and sold to the West Indies and to the colonies." 

154. West Indian trade leads to smuggling. England 
owned some of the West Indies. ^^ The Spanish and 
French West India Islands were not open to Englishmen 
for trade. Englishmen at home set the example to 
Americans in smugghng goods to these islands. The 
American colonist became a double smuggler when he 
got by the French or Spanish custom officers, and when 
he brought his cargo to America and outwitted the Eng- 
lish officers. 

155. Piracy everywhere. Smugghng was not piracy, 
but sometimes smugglers turned pirates. From Maine 
to the West Indies pirates were to be found. It is said 
that one of the colonial governors sold them licenses. 
Captain Kidd, a bold seaman, sailed to hunt them down, 
turned pirate himself, and became the terror of the sea. 
Besides Kidd there were French, Bonnet, and Blackbeard, 
all famous pirates. Finally the colonists and the English 
drove the pirates to the Spanish West Indies. 

HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED 

156. Why the colonists loved England. The great 
majority of the colonists were warmly attached to Eng- 
land. They had a right to look up to England. Her 
government was not only the freest among European 
nations, but she had given the colonies a more liberal 
government than any other nation would have done. But 
Englishmen had to battle with their monarchs now and 
then in order to keep their government free. The colonists 
could always point with pride to those great charters of 
hberty: Magna Charta (12 15); the Petition of Right 



GOVERNMENT OF THE COLONIES 93 

(1629); and the Bill of Rights (1689). « The settlers, as 
Englishmen, claimed the rights named in these grants. 

157. The monarch's blunders. The colonies had a 
more perfect system of self-government than the mother 
countr}^ England had a king and a House of Lords. It 
is true that this king was sovereign over the colonies, but 
he acted through governors or proprietors. Two colo- 
nies, Connecticut and Rhode Island, elected their own 
governors. While the colonies were small the king paid 
little attention to them. He made the mistake of trying 
to manage them after they had grown great in numbers. 
The monarch ceased to use the veto power in England 
(1707), but made the blunder of continuing to veto 
colonial laws. 

158. Where our state governments came from. "The 
roots of the present lie deep in the past." We realize 
how true this is when we think of our present state gov- 
ernments growing out of colonial governments. The colo- 
nial governor, vetoed laws he did not like and put others in 
force. The colonial governor sent messages to the leg- 
islature, appointed officers, and was a great figure at social 
doings. Our governors do all of these things. 

To aid the governor the colony usually had a council 
made up of leading men. This council in some colonies 
had the right to help make the laws. Out of this council 
our senate has grown. 

But the people of the colonies took pride in their repre- 
sentatives. They elected them then as now. Not all 
the people voted, but mainly persons owning property. 
In some colonies a voter or office-holder must hold 
certain religious doctrines. . The members of these lower 
houses kept a sharp lookout over what the governor did. 
They objected when he spent too much money and some- 



94 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 

times cut down his salary if he did not please them. 
159. Where our local governments came from. In 

New England the settlers formed little groups around a 
church and a school (§70). Each group was given a 
name and became a town or township. The New Eng- 
land town included the village and all the farms near it. 
From this town two representatives were elected to the 
assembly. This town had its own government. The 
men met to talk over the town's welfare. At this meeting 
leaders, called selectmen, were elected to look after the 
government. In most northern towns we have a similar 
government. These town-meetings gave the New Eng- 
land people a fine training in self-government. 

The southern colonists did not gather into towns but 
settled far apart on big plantations. They had county 
governments. The leading officer was called the sheriff 
after the officer of an English county. We, too, have a 
county officer so named. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Lodge, Short History of the English 
Colonies, 74-454; Roosevelt, Winning oj the West, I, 1 10-125; Bogart, 
Economic History of the United States, 36-S8; Bogart and Thompson, 
Readings in the Economic History of the United States, 1-142; Hart, 
Contemporaries, 1, chap, i; Hart, American Statesmen and Patriots, I, 
238-243. 

References for pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 186-188, 222-224, 
280-281; Earle, Child Life in Colonial Days, Home Life in Colonial 
Days; Hart, Source Book, 88-92, 11 5-1 23; Hart, Source Reader, I, 143, 
159, 161, 177, 184, 185; Hart, Colonial Children, 67-70; Mowry, Inven- 
tions and Inventors, 187-206. 

Fiction: Robinson, Lads and Lassies of Other Days, Little Puritans' 
First Christmas; Stockton, Stories of New Jersey; Paulding, The Dutch- 
man's Fireside. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Describe a colonial "dandy.'- 2. You are a Scotch-Irishman 
living on the frontier. What are your experiences? 3. Write letters 
to a southern boy or girl telling of northern fun in winter time. 4. Get 
letters from the colonial South. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

THE RISE OF NEW FRANCE 

1 60. The French and the Newfoundland fisheries. 

John Cabot and the Cortereal brothers (1501) took back 
to Europe stories of immense numbers of fish in the waters 
near Newfoundland. As a result, as early as 1504 French 
fishermen were visiting the fishing grounds, and by 1522 
they had built some houses on shore. They came every 
year and built up a flourishing business. By 1577 they 
had 150 ships on the Banks, many more than any other 
nation. We have read of the work of Verrazano and 
Cartier, but no permanent French settlement was founded 
for a long time (§21). In 1604 De Monts founded Port 
Royal, later called AnnapoHs. 

161. Samuel Champlain, the founder of New France 
(1608). Champlain planted the first permanent colony 
in Canada at 



Quebec, one year 
after Jamestown. 
He joined the 
Algonquin In- 
dians (1609) 
against their 
deadly enemies, 
the Iroquois 
(§34). On the 
shores of Lake 
Champlain they met with savage yells. The ranks of the 
Algonquins opened, and Champlain, clad in steel and 




THE DEFEAT OF THE IROQUOIS AT LAKE CHAMPLAIN 



95 



96 



THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 



armed with a weapon never before seen by the Iroquois, 
stepped forth. He fired, and two Iroquois chiefs fell. 
Other shots followed, and the "boldest and fiercest war- 
riors of North America " ran frightened through the woods. 
From that day, for over a hundred years the Iroquois 
kept the French from coming down into New York. 

162. Marquette and Joliet. Marquette and JoHet 
went from Quebec in search of a great river called the 
"Father of Waters" (1673). From Mackinac they went 
through Green Bay and up the Fox River to the portage. 
The Indians carried their canoes to the Wisconsin, and 
down this charming river they floated to the Mississippi. 
On the bosom of this broad stream they were carried for 
many days. They reached the mouth of the Arkansas. 

They were satisfied 
that the Missis- 
sippi flowed into 
the Gulf of Mexico 
and now made 
their slow way 
back. Joliet re- 
ported to Quebec, 
and Marquette 
built a cabin on 
the site of the city 
of Chicago (1674). 
He died soon after, 
a missionary to the 
Indians. 

163. La Salle 
and Hennepin. 
La Salle was greatest among the early French explorers. 
He resolved to hold the Mississippi region for his beloved 




LA SALLE AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI 



THE RISE OF NEW FRANCE 97 

France (1679). His expedition started from Canada and 
went by way of the St. Joseph and the Kankakee rivers 
to Peoria Lake. He returned to Canada, and Hennepin 
paddled on down to the Mississippi and up that stream 
to the Falls of St. Anthony, where now stand the great 
cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis. La Salle returned 
and passed down the Mississippi River to its mouth 
(1783). He took possession and named the region 
Louisiana in honor of the king of France, Louis XIV. 




NEW ORLEANS IN 17 IQ 



164. Louisiana. The plans of the French. How the 

Frenchman's heart leaped for joy as he looked forward to 
a vast empire in the heart of America! The king sent 
La Salle with an expedition to settle at the mouth of the 
Mississippi (1684). But La Salle missed the place, 
wandered about in Texas, and finally was murdered by 
one of his own men. France was not discouraged: She 
settled Biloxi (1699) on the Gulf, and Mobile (1702) far- 
ther east. In rapid succession she built the forts Assump- 
tion, Rosalie, and New Orleans (17 14-18). Already 
Frenchmen were coming west and south from the Great 
Lakes. They, too, had built a strong chain of forts. 
The English had not yet broken over the Alleghenies, 
and the French did their work in safety. 

5 



gS THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

THEIR FIRST CONFLICTS 

165. King William's War and Queen Anne's War 
(1689-1713). We have already seen the great changes 
made in the colonies by William and Mary (§78, 92). The 
king of France, Louis XIV, hated the new king of England 
and decided to make war. The English colonies were 
only too glad to join the mother country. The main 
French and Indian events included attacks on the frontier 
towns of Schenectady, Salmon Falls, Haverhill, and 
Deerfield'. The English replied by attacking Acadia in 
both wars. They changed its name to Nova Scotia, and 
Port Royal to Annapohs (§160). The treaty of Utrecht 
gave England possession of the Hudson Bay country and 
Newfoundland. This was the beginning of the end of 
New France. 

166. King George's War (1744-48). For over thirty 
years England had no war with .France, thanks to a great 



%-^:$'^ 




THE C\PTURE OP LOUISBt RG 



English statesman, Robert Walpole. France had forti- 
fied Louisburg, the key to the St. Lawrence. When war 



TH^ GREAT STRUGGLE 



00 



finally came, England sent great fleets carrying several 
thousand soldiers to attack Louisburg. New England 
raised 4,000 men, and the fortress fell (1745). Great was 
the joy throughout the colonies. Their disappointment 
at its return by treaty to France was made lighter by a 
gift from Parliament to help pay the cost of the war. 



THE GREAT STRUGGLE 

167. In the first West. Causes of the war. Many 
colonial grants, in fixing boundaries, ran from sea to sea. 
But the French cared nothing for English charters. Their 
fur traders pushed south as the English pushed north. 
They met in the Appalachian region, the West of that 
time. 

This was a wonderful region of vast forests, rich soil 
in the valleys, and abundant animal life. It was already 
occupied by the Scotch-Irish (§110). 

The Ohio Company 



(:■ '\^A}k 




received a grant of 500,- 
000 acres near the source 
of the Ohio. Settlers 
were getting ready to go 
into this region. The 
French, too, were coming 
down the Allegheny River 
to the source of the Ohio. 
168. Washington's 
first public service. 
Washington^" was a splen- 
did-looking young man; 
tall, strong, and able to 
outdo his fellows. Although he was not yet twenty-one, 
the governor of Virginia picked him to order the French 



WASHINGTON ON HIS WAY BACK FROM 
THE FRENCH POSTS 



lOO THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

out of the Ohio Valley region. They refused to go, and 
he was put at the head of troops to push to the source 




INDIANS ON THEIR WW BACK TO CANADA WITH THEIR PRISONERS 

of the Ohio. He fought two skirmishes, winning one and 
losing one. He was compelled to surrender. War had 
begun. 

169. Other preparations. The Albany union (1754). 
The French were trying hard to win the Iroquois; hence 
English colonial delegates were sent to Albany to treat 
with the Indians. Not all the Indian chiefs came. They 
plainly told the English, "The French are men; they are 
fortifying everywhere. But, we are ashamed to say it, 
you are like women." The Indians were given presents 
and went away happy. 

The colonies had long felt the need of some kind of 
union. The delegates adopted a plan prepared by 
Benjamin FrankHn. Neither king nor colonies would 
have it. They faced the war broken into thirteen parts, 



THE GREAT STRUGGLE lOi 

while the French were united. The governor of Canada 
could order every Frenchman in Canada into the army. 
The colonies could only ask for volunteers. 

170. Braddock's defeat (1755). England sent General 
Braddock with a small army to help the colonists. They 
joined him in a campaign against Fort Duquesne on the 
Ohio. He was brave but haughty. He refused the 
advice of Franklin and Washington that he should get 
ready for an Indian surprise. He marched along a nar- 
row road through the deep forests. Near the fort the 
Indians, yelling like demons fired upon them from behind 
trees. The soldiers could not see the Indians and ran 
away after many of their comrades were shot down. 



Lj I h ^i/^ihll 




WASHINGTON .\ND THE VIRGINIANS SAVE BRADIJOCK S ARMY 



Braddock was mortally wounded. ^^ Only Washington 
and his Virginians saved the army from total wreck. 



THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERKW 



171. Washington on the frontier. The Acadians. 

The House of Burgesses gave Washington hearty thanks 
for his bravery. He hastened into the Shenandoah Valley 
to guard the frontier families from the tomahawk and the 
scalping knife of the Indians. He won name and fame in 
protecting this "backdoor" to the colonies. 

The English were successful against the Acadians. 
These people were French and lived in far-ofif Nova Scotia 
(§165). They loved their native land and refused to be 
loyal to the EngHsh flag. They were scattered among 
strangers from Maine to Georgia. ^- 

172. The Seven Years' War. The French and Indian 
War v/as a part of the struggle in Europe which we know 
as the Seven Years' War. France, Russia, and Spain 
joined Austria in trying to defeat Frederick the Great of 

Prussia. England went to 
the aid of Frederick. England 
sent her soldiers to America 
and her money to Frederick. 
The English navy, the most 
powerful in the world, guarded 
the sea and kept France from 
sending troops to America. 
This war raged on three con- 
tinents at the same time: in 
America, in Europe, and in 
far-away India. 

173. Pitt to the rescue. 
For two years (1756-57) 
France won every battle in 
America. vShe was united. The English sent over only 
poor generals to the colonies, while the French had a great 
soldier, Montcalm. 

The English turned out their worthless ministers after 




WILLIAM PITT 



THE GREAT STRUGGLE 



103 




JAMES WOLFE 



two years and called 

William Pitt to head the 

government. He was a 

man of boundless energy 

and enthusiasm. He did 

everything at once: sent 

money to Frederick, raised 

more soldiers for America, 

and selected new generals 

because of their fighting 

ability. The coloni.es 

caught his enthusiasm and 

voted more men and more 

money than their share. ^^ 
174. Pitt's generals. 

Pitt sent a great fleet and 

army against Louisburg 

(§166). The walls of the fort crumbled, and the mouth 

of the St. Lawrence River was now open. 

Pitt sent Howe to attack 
Fort Ticonderoga with the larg- 
est army yet seen in America, 
15,000. Everything promised 
victory until General Howe was 
killed. " Nearly 2,000 men fell, 
the largest number yet killed in 
an American battle. The Eng- 
lish retreated. 

General Forbes gathered an 
army and captured Fort 
Duquesne. Washington raised 
the British flag over that frontier 
post. Tt was named Fort Pitt in 
LOUIS JOSEPH DE MONTCALM houor of that great Englishman. 




I04 



THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 



175. The fall of Quebec. While Niagara and Oswego 
were being captured and Sir William Johnson and General 
Amherst were driving the French from Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point, General Wolfe was moving against Quebec. 
After Louisburg, Quebec was the key to Canada. Wolfe's 
cannon easily knocked to pieces the lower town. But 
Montcalm's real fort was the high bluff of the St. Lawrence 
called the Plains of Abraham. 

One night, after a wait of three months, Wolfe's men 
clambered up the heights and were ready for battle in the 




THE DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE 

early morning. Montcalm advanced to the attack. 
The British held their fire until the French were near. 
The French line wavered, broke, and fled. Wolfe and 
Montcalm both fell mortally wounded. "I am happy," 
said Montcalm, "I shall not live to see the surrender of 
Quebec." Wolfe, when told that the French were run- 
ning, said with a smile on his face, "Now God be praised! 
I shall die in peace. "^^ The next year Montreal fell, and 



THE MEANING OF THE VICTORY 105 

all Canada became English. The dream of New France 
had passed away forever. 

THE MEANING OF THE VICTORY 

176. To the world. The treaty signed in Paris (1763) 
was proof of England's victory. England received Florida 
from Spain. Spain received all of Louisiana from France. 
In far-off India, England now laid the foundations of 
her vast possessions which now reach round the world. 
But most important of all, Canada fell to England. 

To America it meant the triumph of the ideas of the 
"glorious revolution" (§78). In all New France there 
had never been a representative assembly, town meeting, 
trial by jury, religious toleration, or a free school. The 
English colonies rejoiced in all of these institutions. The 
people of New France, only 80,000, were under the rule 
of a tyrant king, but the people of the colonies, over 
1,000,000, were their own rulers. 

177. To England and America. The EngHsh colonies 
were wild with joy when .they heard of the capture of 
Quebec. Bells rang, cannon boomed, bonfires burned, 
and candles and whale oil lamps were set in the windows. 
The colonists were proud of the English name. They 
were glad to welcome three new colonies: (i) Canada, 
(2) Florida, and (3) West Florida on the Gulf. 

Both England and the colonies went deeply into debt. 
The war had been a sort of training school for the Ameri- 
cans. It taught them what a campaign cost in money 
and food. Thereafter many of their soldiers were better 
trained and made good officers in the war of the Revolu- 
tion. As a result of the war the colonists knew each 
other better. They had fought together, sorrowed over 



io6 THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

the same defeats, and rejoiced over the same victories. 
The ties of union were made stronger. 

This war removed the French menace. "Do you not 
see," asked a French statesman of an Englishman, "that 
Canada in the hands of France will serve to keep your 
colonies in the dependence which they will not fail to 
shake off the moment Canada is ceded?" 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Parkman, Pioneers of New France, 46-47, 
80-88; Thwaites, Colonies, 246-257; Hart, Formation of the Union, 
24-30; Lodge, Washington ("American Statesmen Series"), I, 64-78; 
Fiske, New France and New England, 58-132, 24Q-259; Roosevelt, 
Winning of the West, I, 25-48; Hart, Contemporaries, II, 140-144, 
32(^322, 346-348. 

References for pupils: Mace, Stories .of Heroism, 106-110; Mace, 
Washington, a Virginia Cavalier, 46-66; Hawthorne, Grandfather's 
Chair, 140-169; Hart, Source Readers, 11, 32-44; Hart, Source Booli, 
98-107. 

Fiction: Otis, Hannah of Kentucky; Oxley, Fife and Drum at 
Louisbnrg; vSeawell, A Virginia Cavalier. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Go with Champbin and the Canadian Indians down the St. 
Lawrence and up Lake ChampLain to their battle with the Iroquois. 
Write what you see and hear and what the effect will be. 2. Go down 
the Mississippi with Joliet and Marquette. Write an account of the 
trip to friends in France. 3. Take a trip from Quebec through the 
Great Lakes and down to 'the Gulf. Describe France's "dream of 
empire." 4. You are one of Washington's guides to the French. 
Write up the story. 5. Write a paper justifying Pontiac's conspiracy 



CHAPTER Viri 

SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND AND UNION 
AMONG THE COLONIES 

REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 

178. Europe's way of treating colonies. The colonists 
rejoiced in belonging to a country that had its possessions 
in India, Europe, and America. 

Ancient nations had planted colonies to enrich the 
merchants of their own countries. Spain and France 
treated their colonies in the same way. Their trade, 
religion, and government were under the thumb of the 
monarch. To keep colonial trade for their own mer- 
chants, no other nation was permitted to trade with their 
colonies. If colonial goods came into markets where the 
mother country traded, laws were passed to prevent this 
competition. Before 1750 English colonies everywhere 
enjoyed freer trade, freer religion, and freer government 
than the colonies of any other nation. 

Yet it must be understood that England planted 
colonies to benefit herself. She felt that her interests 
came first, even before those of the colonies. She wanted 
to build up her navy by having all goods sent to and from 
America in English ships; she wanted the colonists to 
send most of their products to England and not to other 
countries, and she wanted a market for her manufactures 
in America. She was willing for the colonies to have a 
good deal of freedom, in some matters but after all she 
expected to control them so as to make herself rich and 
strong, and not so as to benefit the colonies. 

107 



io8 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 



179. Navigation and other laws. The Navigation 
Laws (§146) crippled American trade because they de- 
clared that all goods must be carried to England in Eng- 
lish or colonial ships; that goods coming to the colonies 
must first be taken to England. 

The Sugar Act (1733) struck a deadly blow at the sugar 
and molasses trade with the French and Spanish West 
Indies (§153). Other acts regarded as oppressive were 
the Hat Act (§148) and the Iron Works Act (§147). 
Although the navigation and trade laws dated as far 
back as Cromwell's time, they had never been really 
enforced. Grenville, the new prime minister, and 
George III, the new king, decided to make the colonists 
obey these laws. 

180. A new king brings new ways (1760). George III 
was ruler of Hanover, in Germany, while he was king of 

England. He had been educated 
by tutors and had been taught to 
believe it the king's duty to win 
the power lost in the two great 
revolutions (§73, 78). Most of 
the Tories supported him. He 
broke the Whig party into 
factions by bribes and gifts of 
office. Many statesmen feared 
for English liberty. Pitt, Burke, 
Fox, and other Whigs never gave 
up the fight against him. We 
would expect this king to have 
a new plan for governing his 
colonies. He needed money as a 
result of the French and Indian wars (§177). 

In 1 761 the king tried to collect the custom duties in 




GEORGE in, KING OF ENGLAND 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 



109 



America by using search warrants, called Writs of Assist- 
ance, for smuggled goods. This enraged the people, ^^ but 
he got very little money. He sent the navy to suppress 
smuggling, but injured the trade with the West Indies. 
Still he got little revenue. 

181. The Stamp Act. America might have given in 
to these acts if England had not passed the Stamp Act. 
This was a direct tax laid on legal and business documents 
and newspapers. No one could even get married without 
paying the tax. The money was to support 10,000 troops 
to be kept in the colonies. The people at once cried out, 
"Taxation without representation is tyranny." , 




PATRICK HENRY ADDRESSING THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES 

Patrick Henry of Virginia denounced the law, declaring 
before the burgesses, "Caesar had his Brutus; Charles I 
his Cromwell, and George IH — " "Treason!" shouted 
the speaker — "may profit by their example." 

The bolder men in the colonies formed the "Sons of 
Liberty," while the merchants made non-importation 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 



agreements. The colonists made agreements among 
themselves that they would not import any goods from 



..III ' . > .^ '■.Tf 



/; {W 






AS^«¥^>f 





RESISTANCE TO THE STAMP ACT 



England and would not use any articles that came from 
that country. The British merchants were hard hit; 
they felt that Parliament had gone too far. 

Mobs in America rushed about the streets, riding stamp 
agents on rails and crying, "Liberty, property, and no 
stamps." In New York a torchhght parade carried figures 
of the royal governor and vSatan and burned them in the 
governor's presence. 

182. The Stamp Act Congress (i765\ The growing 
feeling of union demanded a congress. Delegates" from 
nine colonies met in New York. They asserted that 
the colonists were Englishmen; that they could not be 
represented in ParHament, and that they could be taxed 
only by their own assemblies. They sent an address to 
the king and a petition to Parliament. Gadsden declared : 
"There ought to be no New England man, no New 
Yorker, known on this continent, but all of us Americans." 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION m 

183. Parliament repeals the tax (1766). The Whigs 
of England were now stirring. Englishmen were storm- 
ing Parliament for the repeal of the act.^^ Pitt declared 
that he "rejoiced that America resisted." Lord Camden, 
a great judge, agreed with the Americans, and Burke 
spoke against the folly of such a law. Lord Rockingham, 
the prime minister, introduced a resolution repeahng the 
Stamp Act. Had it not been for the Whigs, the law 
would very likely not have been repealed. America 
and England were ablaze with bonfires ! Whigs in both 
countries rejoiced in the victory. 

184. The Townshend Acts (1767). Srill England got 
little money from America. Townshend put duties on 
paper, tea, paints, and on other articles wanted by the 
colonists.^'' Parliament took away the powers of the New 
York assembly for refusing to quarter British troops. 
The old spirit of the colonies flamed up in opposition. 

John Dickinson of Pennsyl- 
vania declared in his "Letters 
of a Farmer" that "we cannot 
be free without being secure in 
our property." Samuel Adams, 
called the ' ' firebrand of the Rev- 
olution," sent a ringing "circular 
letter" to all the other colonies. 
He called on them to unite 
against the new taxes. The king 
ordered Massachusetts to recall 
the circular letter and the other 
colonies to treat it with con- 
tempt. Not a single colony 
obeyed the king.^" Two regiments of soldiers were 
ordered to Boston to enforce the Townshend Acts. 




S.^MUEL ADAMS 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 



185. Outbreaks in the colonies. In New York the 
king's soldiers and the wSons of Liberty had a skirmish 
called the Battle of Golden Hill. In Boston (1770) 
several citizens were shot by soldiers. This is known as 
the Boston Massacre. In Rhode Island the people 
seized and burned the king's vessel, the "Gaspee." 
These events stirred the people. 

186. The committees of secret correspondence. 

George III had found a 
man, Lord North, who 
managed Parliament, and 
did his bidding. He re- 
pealed all taxes except the 
small sum of three pence 
per pound on tea. Still 
the merchants held to their 
"boycott" against English 
goods, but the tea ships 
were coming to America 
anyway. 

To keep the patriots 
posted, on motion of Samuel 
Adams, committees were 
appointed in the towns of 
Massachusetts to correspond with each other (1772). In 
a short time Paul Revere was carrying the news from 
Boston to the other towns. In Virginia the burgesses 
named a committee to do a like work with all the assem- 
blies on the continent (1773). 

187. The Boston Tea Party. Events were moving 
fast. The committees had been formed none too soon. 
Tea ships were on their way to colonial ports. In Boston 
the ships refused to take the tea back to England. The 





^ ^ c I yy-^ 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 



113 




- ^rSf^t-'^V 



committee summoned 7,000 people from country and 
town. They overflowed the Old South Meeting House to 
hear speeches by 
Samuel Adams 
and other patri- 
ots. Candles 
were brought in, 
and finally word 
came that the 
governor had 
refused to per- 
mit the ships to 
go back. The 
meetingwas __ _ ^__ 

QlSmiSSea, ana ^^^ boston tea party aboard the ship 

the war whoop m the harbor 

of the "Mohawks" was heard from the gallery and from 
the streets. The people poured out, rushed to the wharf, 
and saw the "Indians" dump the tea into the harbor. 
The next night Paul Revere started on his first long ride 
to carry the news to New York and Philadelphia. He 
listened to the cheering words as the patriots in these 
old towns resolved to stand by Boston. 

188. The Intolerable Acts arouse America. England 
struck back quickly. The Port Bill cut off all trade with 
Boston. Her people suffered, but the other colonies sent 
food, clothing, and money. "Hold on and hold out to 
the last," said one of the many resolute letters to Boston. 

The Regulating Act*'' changed the charter of Massa- 
chusetts (§78). The governor was given the power to 
appoint and pay the leading officers in the colony. A 
third act was intended to make officers more fearless in 
doing their duty by providing that they be sent out of the 



114 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 



colony for trial for murder. A later act gave Quebec 
all the territory down to the Ohio River. This cut off 
the natural growth of the thirteen colonies. 

General Gage, with four regiments, was ordered to 
enforce these acts and was told to arrest Samuel Adams 
and John Hancock (§193). 

189. The First Continental Congress (1774). With 
the courageous words of Washington, "I will raise 1,000 
men, subsist them at my own expense, and march myself 

at their head for the rehef 
of Boston," still ringing 
in their ears, the Con- 
gress met in Carpenters' 
Hall, Philadelphia. It was 
a noble band of patriots, 
fifty-five in number. 
They all knew Washing- 
ton through his deeds in 
i the late war (§§168, 171). 




Samuel Adams and 
Richard Henry Lee, two 
firebrands of the Revolu- 
tion, met for the first 
time. 
..^vor^,™,;,™?. •r^v?g^ia-i Here, too, met the two 

f^^^i"^ i rV ' iil^'^S' ? greatest orators of the 

Im .^.-sta>y^^4i Revolution, Patrick 

Henry and John Adams. 
The gentle John Dickin- 
son, author of "Letters 
from a Farmer " (§184) and Roger Sherman, who rose from 
the shoemaker's bench to be a judge, were of that band. 
New York sent her merchant prince, PhiHp Livingston, 



CARPENTERS HALL 



REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 



IIS 




and John Jay, a Huguenot and a man learned in the law. 
From South Carolina came John Rutledge, a famous 
lawyer, and Christopher Gadsden, a scholar and patriot. 

190. The work of Congress. Union against the Tory 
king and Par- 
liament was 
the highest sen- 
timent of Con- 
gress. And yet 
its members 
sent appeals to 
king and Par- 
liament. Their 
most impor- 
tant paper was 
a Declaration 

of Rifht*; ^"^ FIRST PRAYER IN CONGRESS 

(§156) .^2 They again declared that the Americans were 
EngHshmen (§182); that they could not be taxed except 
by their own assemblies, but that Americans would sub- 
mit to all laws for the raising of money to regulate the 
trade of the whole empire. 

Congress took a mighty step forward when it adopted 
the non-importation agreement for the country. It left 
to the committees of correspondence the duty of carrying 
out this act (§186). This has been pointed to as the 
birth of the American Union. Congress finally agreed to 
stand by Boston and meet force with force if necessary. 

191. Chatham talks with Franklin. The king and his 
party were more determined than ever when they got 
word from this Congress. But the friends of America 
were more awake than ever. William Pitt, now Earl of 
Chatham, the old friend of the colonies, sent for FrankHn.^^ 



Ii6 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 

They talked over the situation in America, and no doubt 
Franklin gave him the papers issued by Congress. 

Chatham introduced a bill to recall the troops from 
Boston and made a powerful speech in its favor, but it 
was defeated. He immediately introduced his plan of 
conciliation. It took into account the ten years in the 
growth of union between the colonies. It repealed every 
act of taxation opposed by the Americans, but it did 
recognize the right of ParHament to pass' laws for the 
whole empire. 

192. Burke's efforts. Burke, the greatest statesman 
of his time, was a friend of the colonies and had been the 
agent in England of the colony of New York. He proba- 
bly knew more about conditions in America than did any 
other Englishman. He had denounced the Stamp Act 
and now spoke with equal force against the taxation of 
the Americans. His most eloquent plea in the House of 
Commons was his speech on conciliation. 

But his efforts, like Chatham's, were voted down by the 
Tory party. Lord North brought in a plan which Parlia- 
ment approved. It proposed to take up the case of each 
colony by itself, thus ignoring the union that had grown 
up. Lord North was too late. The colonies were ready 
to fight. 

THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT • 

193. Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775). General 
Gage was in a tight place. If he did nothing, the Tories 
in England and America would blame him. If he acted, 
the Whigs here and at home would denounce him. He 
sent a secret force to destroy stores at Concord, eighteen 
miles from Boston, and to capture Samuel Adams and 
John Hancock. 



THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 



117 



Paul Revere was on the watch (§186). The British 
were scarcely over the river before Revere was riding hard 
to alarm the people with the cry: "The regulars are 
coming ! ' ' Fifty minutemen"^ stood on the green at Lex- 
ington when Major Pitcairn, at the head of his troops, 
cried: "Disperse, ye rebels!" Shots were fired and ten 
Americans fell. 

The British pushed on to Concord, where more minute- 
men had collected. There they destroyed some military 

















RETREAT OF THE BRITISH REGULARS TO BOSTON 

stores. At the old North Bridge a battle took place, and 
the British turned back toward Lexington. The Ameri- 
cans poured in a hot fire from behind houses, fences, and 
trees. Reenforcements came to the British, but they 
only made more marks for the minutemen. They chased 
the British right under the muzzle of the cannon in Bos- 
ton harbor. The British lost almost three times as 
many men as the Americans. 

The news stirred Great Britain. To think that Ameri- 
can farmers had beaten British regulars ! The news flew 



UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 




BRITISH REGULAR 



man in America' 



to distant parts of the colonies, and 
everywhere it was met by preparations 
for war. It reached Europe and 
raised up friends for Hberty."'^ 

194. Americans still loyal to Britain. 
Just before leaving England Franklin 
said to Lord Chatham: "I never 
heard from any person the least ex- 
pression of a wish for separation." 
Jefferson declared : ' ' There is not in 
1^^ the British Empire a man who more 
cordially loves a union with Great 
Britain than I do." Washington de- 
clared that "no such thing as inde- 
pendence is desired by any thinking 
(1774). These sentiments did not 

mean that Americans would not fight for their rights as 

EngHshmen. EngHshmen at home had often fought for 

the same rights (§156). 

195. The siege of Boston. Battle 

of Bunker Hill. In a few days Boston 

was surrounded by the minutemen 

of New England. Colonel Prescott, 

leading 1,000 men, seized and fortified 

Breed's Hill. They were reenforced 

by those brave souls, Putnam, Stark, 

and Warren. 

Gage ordered Howe with 3,000 men 

to storm the fort (June 17). The 

British marched up the slope in solid 

column, flags flying and drums beat- 
ing. "Don't fire, "said Putnam, "till 

you see the whites of their eyes." 




MINUTEMAN 



THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 



119 



Twice the British were beaten back by the deadly fire of 
the Americans, but with true EngHsh pluck they made 




e 



V 




mkM.ss 



AcarsETTS 



:& 



>" ,N ;.^it,;U/'fiV^ ^Cas.lo William "^ 



MAP OF BOSTON AND VICINITY 



a third trial. The minutemen's ammunition was gone and 
they retreated, fighting stubbornly with clubbed rifles. 

The loss to the British was 1,154, more than one-third 
of the attacking force. The Americans lost 449.*"^ The 
colonies hailed Bunker Hill as a victory. 

196. Washington takes command. Massachusetts, a 
Puritan colony, and Virginia, the colony of the CavaHers, 
were ringleaders in the war. Hancock was made presi- 
dent of the Continental Congress and Washington the 
commander-in-chief of the American armies. 

As Washington started for Boston congressmen and 
citizens rode out with him. The trip was scarcely begun 
when they heard the news from Bunker Hill. When 
Washington heard how the minutemen had fought he 
declared : ' 'The liberties of the country are safe. ' ' In New 
York Washington promised to work for the restoration of 
good feeling. He received a rousing welcome from the 
boys at Yale College. On July 3, he took command of the 



I20 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 

army at Cambridge and went to work to make a real 
army out of these men. Congress ordered men from as 
far south as Virginia*'^ to make the army a continental one. 







COLLEGE WELCOME AT YALE 



197. The Americans fail at Quebec and succeed at 
Boston. Many people hoped that Canada would join 
the colonies. But in an expedition against Quebec 
Montgomery was killed, Arnold wounded, and Morgan 
captured. The soldiers suffered untold hardships. 

Washington had wanted to strike a blow, but ammuni- 
tion was scarce. Ethan Allen captured Ticonderoga and 
sent its cannon and powder to Boston. One night in 
the midst of a terrific cannonade, 2,000 Americans occu- 
pied and began to fortify Dorchester Heights. General 
Howe (§195) remembered Bunker Hill and decided not 
to attack. He put his soldiers and 1,000 Tory citizens 
on board his ships and sailed for Halifax. New England 
was now free. Later the British got a foothold at New- 
port. 



THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 121 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Parkman, Pioneers of France, 46-324; 
Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion, 94-139, 163-218; Fiske, American 
Revolution, I, 14-127; Sloane, French War and the Revolution, 116-202; 
Tyler, Patrick Henry ("American Statesmen Series"), 28-129; Hosmer, 
Samuel Adams ("American Statesmen Series"), 21-23, 243-256; 
Lodge, Story of the Revolution, I, 25-136; Bassett, Short History, chaps, 
viii-ix; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 381-433; II, 546-565; Hart, Source 
Book, 14-17, 96-98, 103-107. 

References for pupils: Mace, Primary History, 1 16-138, 141-185; 
Mace, George Washington, 1-102; Thwaites, Colonies, 246-257; Hart, 
Formation of the Union, 44-74; Hawthorne, Grandfather^ s Chair, 140- 
169, 186-250; Coffin, Boys of '76, 17-90; McMurry, Pioneers of the 
Mississippi Valley, 1-48; Source Reader, II, 122-266. 

Fiction: Catherwood, Story of Tonty; Henty, With Wolfe in 
Canada; Monroe, At War With Pontiac; Seawell, A Virginia Cavalier; 
Longfellow, Evangeline; Holmes, Ballad of the Boston Tea Party, 
Grandmother's Story; Longfellow, Paul Revere's Ride; Cooper, Sir 
Lionell Lincoln; Bryant, Green Mountain Boys, Seventy-Six. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Write an essay about the Indians at the Albany Congress; 
another on Benjamin Franklin. 2. Visit Washington's home and 
tell what you hear about him. 3. You are a banished Acadian. Write 
a letter to an English officer in your old home. 4. Imagine yourself 
an English traveler in the colonies at the time of the Boston Tea Party 
and write a number of letters to England. 5. Get permission to go 
with Paul Revere on his first ride. Report what you saw and heard 
for a New York paper. 6. Write the history of William Pitt and the 
English Whigs in their efforts to prevent the war. 



CHAPTER IX 
THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND 

198. The king a cause of separation. The hard-headed 
king had refused all offers of conciHation both by England 
and by America. But Congress sent him one more peti- 
tion, the "Olive Branch," it was called. George III 
scorned it, declared the Americans rebels, and hired 
Hessians from Hesse in Germany to fight the Americans."^ 

Many of the young men of England had refused to 
join the king's army to fight their brethren in America. 
Some of the king's officers had resigned, although they 
gave up life positions. But the king was determined. 
His conduct drove thousands of Americans to resolve that 
if they must fight it were better to fight for the rights 
of man. 

199. Public opinion divided. The great majority of 
Americans had favored fighting for their rights as English- 
men. But when they saw their houses burned and their 
fathers and sons slain, the bolder ones demanded separa- 
tion. The more conservative ones drew back from this 
step and began to side with the king. They could not 
think of giving up their friends in England and of break- 
ing every tie that bound them to the mother country. 
Such people lived in every colony. They were among 
the richest and most highly educated citizens. They 
were called Tories. 

200. Steps toward independence. Just after the battle 
of Lexington, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, 
threw off the king's authority. ^^ Thomas Paine struck a 



SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND 



123 



telling blow in his pamphlet, "Common Sense": "The 

appeal was the King's If you say you can pass 

the violations over, then I ask, hath your house been 
burnt? Have you lost a parent or child by their hand? " 
In the spring (1776) the people were debating the 
question of independence. Virginia, holding a great 
convention, gave her delegates in Congress orders to 
introduce a resolution looking to independence. 




SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

201. The Declaration of Independence. Richard 
Henry Lee (§189), obeying orders from Virginia, intro- 
duced the resolution asserting that "these United Colonies 
are and of right ought to be free and independent states." 

Congress appointed Jefferson, John Adams, FrankHn, 
Sherman, and Robert R.. Livingston a committee to draw 
up a declaration. Jefferson was its author. He pro- 
duced a document that ranks with Magna Charta (§156). 
It contained the rights of man, the causes of the 



124 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF UAN 

separation, and the declaration that all political connection 
with Great Britain is, and ought to be totally dissolved. 
"In support of this Declaration, with a firm reHance on 
Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our 
lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor" (see Appendix). 

202. How it was received. On July 4 Congress 
adopted the Declaration and sent it forth. The patriots 
hailed it with delight. The army received it with cheers 
and the firing of cannon. It was sent to England and 
published on the Continent in different European lan- 
guages. 

All the great nations were ruled by kings and emperors. 
Not many people in Europe believed that a republic 
could live. • No one could accept the teachings of the 
Declaration of Independence and still believe in kings and 
emperors. The majority of Europeans looked upon the 
patriots as foolhardy and bound to be hanged as rebels. 

203. What the Tories thought. The Tories did not 
want a republic. They looked upon the patriots as a 
low class determined to run the country. The Tories 
feared for their property (§199) and threw in their lot 
with the king. Thousands of them joined the king's 
forces. Probably they included one-third of the people 
in the colonies. The Continental Congress ordered all 
arms to be taken from them. Hundreds were driven to 
Canada and other countries. ™ Some went back to Eng- 
land to hve. The Tories made the war longer and more 
bitter. The Quakers were opposed to all wars for religious 
reasons (§101). 

204. What the Declaration meant in the war. When 
the Declaration was made the Americans changed their 
purpose in the war: now it was a struggle for the rights 
of man. Every patriot could have said to Great Britain: 



THE BRITISH AND THE MIDDLE STATES 



125 



"We are sorry to part from you, but your king^i and your 
Parliament have driven us to this course by taxing us with- 
out our consent, by changing our charters (§188), by closing 
our ports, by hiring Hessians to kill us, and by refusing 
to listen to our last appeal (§198) Our 
struggle from now on is for an indepen- 
dent nation." 



THE BRITISH TRY TO BREAK THE POW ER 
OF THE MIDDLE STATES 

205. Battle of Brooklyn Heights. 
The retreat up the Hudson. Washmg- 
ton set out from Boston to New 
York. Howe ^2 landed his army on 
Long Island and defeated the 
Americans. Washington with- 
drew to New York and 
retired up the Hudson, 
since Howe had more 
than two soldiers to 
his one. But the 
Americans checked 



i- 



THE MILITARY MOVE- 
MENTS IN THE MIDDLE 
COLONIES, 1776-78 




Howe for a short time in the battles of Harlem Heights 
and of White Plains. 



126 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



206. Dark days of the war. Washington saw the 
British aiming at the "rebel capital," Philadelphia. He 
threw his army across the Hudson, retreated through 
Newark and other New Jersey towns, and then crossed 
the Delaware. Congress took flight to Baltimore, and 
Philadelphia began to hide its gold and silver. People 
began to lose hope, soldiers in large numbers left the army, 
and British generals thought the war was over. The 
people did not yet know Washington. 

207. Victories at Trenton and Princeton. General 
Cornwallis left his troops in Trenton while spending 
Christmas in New York. Washington saw his chance. 
The Hessians had been drinking all day. The weather 
was biting cold, and snow was falling fast. "Surely," 
thought the half-tipsy Hessians, "there is no need to 




WASHINGTON AND HIS TROOPS CROSSING THE DELAWARE 

watch tonight." But Washington and his men had 
crossed the Delaware amid floating ice. They were press- 



THE BRITISH AND THE MIDDLE STATES 



127 










WASHINGTON LEADS AGAINST BRITISH LINES 
AT PRINCETON 



ing toward Trenton. Their feet left bloodstains on the 
snow. The sleepy Hessians were aroused at daybreak. 
A few shots, a 
wild charge, 
and all was 
over. One 
thousand 
Hessians sur- 
rendered. It 
was a famous 
victory. 

Congress 
had no money 
to pay Wash- 
ington's men. Their families were suffering. Washington 
appealed to his friend Robert Morris,^'' of Philadelphia. 
He obtained the money needed, and the Americans were 
ready to fight again. 

Washington had posted his men behind a little river 
as Cornwallis was rushing back from New York to attack. 
"We will bag the old fox in the morning," said the British 
general. Washington left his fires burning brightly to 
deceive the British, and in the morning he was thundering 
at Cornwallis' rear guard at Princeton (January 3, 1777).^^ 

208. Effects on Washington. He was now named the 
"American Fabius," after a famous Roman general who 
retreated to save his army and fought when he could win 
a victory. Both in Europe and in America men nowsaw 
that England had a gigantic task to defeat Washington. 
Congress gave him power to raise troops to serve for the 
war. Lafayette and De Kalb, with other French officers, 
came to join his army. Pulaski and Kosciusco, brave 
Poles, had already arrived. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



209. The battle of Brandywine and the winter at 
Valley Forge. Would Howe go up the Hudson to meet 
Burgoyne, or would he try for Philadelphia once 
more? Howe sailed for the head of the Chesapeake, and 
Washington hastened to throw his troops between the 
British and Philadelphia. Washington was beaten in 
the two battles of Brandywine and Germantown. 

He took post at Valley Forge, where his men suffered 
terribly from hunger and cold. Lafayette said that ' ' they 
had neither coats, hats, shirts, nor shoes; their feet and 
legs froze black." The British, on the other hand, were 

feasting and drinking in 
Philadelphia and New 
York and "living off the 
fat of the land." 

There were two bright 
spots at Valley Forge: 
one was the presence of 
Mrs. Washington and 
other ladies who came to 
cheer the men ; the other 
was the constant drilling 
which Baron Steuben 
gave the army. 

210. Burgo3me's cam- 
paign (1777). While 
Howe was on his way to 
Philadelphia, General 
Burgoyne with 8,000 men 
was marching from 
Canada toward Albany. 
St. Leger was sent up the St. Lawrence to cross over to Fort 
Stanwix,^^ come down the Mohawk, and join Burgoyne. 




BURGOYNE S CAMPAIGN 



HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 129 

The British captured Ticonderoga, but got tangled up in 
the deep woods where the brave General vSchuyler had 
cut great trees across the roads and broken down bridges. 
When Burgoyne reached Fort Edward his men were hun- 
gry. He sent 1,000 Hessians toward Bennington to get 
supplies. But General Stark and his minutemen cap- 
tured the whole lot near Bennington. General Herkimer 
with his riflemen routed St. Leger and his Indians in the 
terrible battle of Oriskany. 

211. Burgoyne forced to surrender. Kosciusco (§208) 
had fortified Bemis Heights, and Washington had sent 
Arnold and Morgan to help Schuyler. Just as victory 
was within Schuyler's grasp Congress sent the incompe- 
tent Gates to take command. Two terrific battles were 
fought at Freeman's farm.^'' Burgoyne's supplies were 
now cut off, and he surrendered his whole army at Sara- 
toga October 17, 1777. 

HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 

212. Immediate effects ,of Burgoyne's surrender. The 

Americans were happy over the victory. Many Ameri- 
cans thought Gates a greater general than Washington. 
The Conway Cabal" was hatched while Washington's army 
was suffering at Valley Forge. This was a miserable plot 
to displace Washington, but it came to nothing. 

The destruction of Burgoyne's army was the turning 
point in the war because it brought France to our aid. 

213. Early relations with France. For a long time 
Frenchmen had been finding fault with their kings. 
Those who did not think much about the way they were 
ruled rejoiced when they saw England and the colonies 
beginning to quarrel. 

Among the French were great writers who sympathized 



I30 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OP MAN 



with the Whigs of England and the Whigs in America. 
The king of France was opposed to "helping rebels," he 
said, but he burned to have revenge for the Seven Years' 
War (§175). At the time of the Stamp Act he sent 
Baron de Kalb to spy out America, talk with the colo- 
nists, and report. De Kalb told the truth when he said 
that the colonies were very loyal to England. 

214. Franklin in France. Another agent was sent by 
the French king. He met the men of the Congress (1775) 
and told them that France would send engineers, arms 
and ammunition. Just before the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence Vergennes, acting for his king, sent $1,000,000 
to Congress. Franklin now went to France. No Ameri- 
can had ever been so popular in Paris. He was already 
known there by his quaint sayings in Poor Richard's 
Almanac, by his discovery that lightning and electricity 

are the same thing, and by 
the high position he had 
held in London. His learn- 
ifig attracted the attention 
of educated people, and his 
simple manners and plain 
dress made him the idol of 
the common folk of France. 
The French called Ameri- 
can soldiers "Franklin's 
troops." 

Franklin's work soon be- 
gan to show: France gave 
$400,000 per year to be paid 
back after independence had 
been won, three ships laden with war suppHes, and the 
right for Americans to fit out privateers in French ports 




3ENJAMIN FRANKLIN 



HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 



131 




JEAN PAUL LAFAYRTTE 



and to bring captured ships into these ports to sell them. 
The king would not do these things openly, for England 
was watching. 

215. Sentiment in favor of 
America grows. Franklin 
helped turn public sentiment 
in favor of America. The 
nobles were pressing for open 
support of America, but the 
king held back because he did 
not like to set a bad example > 
before his own people. He 
already saw the growth of 
ideas among Frenchmen that 
might endanger his own 
crown some day.'^ He did 
not hke to hear Franklin 
praised. He commanded Lafayette not to go to America, 
but the king's wife bade him go. The merchants and 
farmers liked the Americans because there were neither 
kings nor nobles in that country. 

216. The French alliance (1778). When the news 
reached France that Burgoyne had surrendered his whole 
army, the people were wild with joy. The king now saw 
that America would succeed and felt that France must 
reap some benefit from her success. The two nations 
formed an alliance. 

France recognized the independence of the United 
States, and both nations promised to continue the war 
until England also recognized our independence. 
This was the real turning point of the war. It brought 
to our aid a great, powerful nation with ships, supplies, 
soldiers, and money. It is difficult to see how America 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



could have won her independence without the help of 
France. 

217. England alarmed.' The news of Burgoyne's sur- 
render stirred England to the center, but the French alH- 
ance excited her even more. Lord North begged the 
king to permit him to resign and to call Lord Chatham 
to the head of the government, but George III was too 
stubborn. The Rockingham Whigs were in favor of 
granting independence to America, and a motion was 
made to that effect. If the king had been wilHng, Chat- 
ham probably would have repealed all taxes and have 
taken every British soldier out of America. As much as 
Americans loved him, it is doubtful if Chatham could 
have persuaded them to throw overboard their new ally. 

218. Other nations join in the war. Spain, too, hesi- 
tated about setting a bad example for the common man, 

but in 1778 she 
joined the allies. 
The French and 
the Spanish fleets 
together were 
larger than the 
English, and 
England was kept 
busy defending 
Gibraltar and her 
colonies in the 
East and West 
Indies. 

219. British 
leave Philadelphia 
(1778). When the British army heard that a great French 
fleet was on its way to America, it left Philadelphia (§209) 







THE CAMPAIGNS AROUND PHILADELPHIA 



HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 



133 



Washington was hard on 
Monmouth. He handled 



for New York in hot haste, 
its heels and attacked it at 
the British so roughly that 
they left for New York 
that night.79 The cam- 
paign for the middle states 
had ended where it began, 
but with tables completely 
turned. Then the British 
had chased Washington 
out of New York ; and now 
he was chasing them into 
New York. 

220. The American navy 
(1775-81). The navy of 
Great Britain was the 
most powerful in the 
world. When the war 
broke out the colonies had 
no navy. They began to send out small vessels, armed 
them, and called them privateers. They scoured the seas 
and captured so many British merchant ships that insur- 
ance rates for them became very high. 

That great sea captain John Barry, an Irishman, came 
to high command by fighting on privateers. So did Paul 
Jones, a Scotchman. 

221. France fits Paul Jones for a great sea victory 
(1779)- The biggest victory at sea in the Revolution 
was won by Paul Jones. He had already won the name 
of "pirate" by attacking British shipping. Franklin 
obtained a small fleet for him. His biggest vessel was the 
"Bon Homme Richard." ^'^ Jones met the English ship 
"Serapis" and fought far into the night. He tied the 




JOHN PAUL JONES 



134 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

two ships together. The decks of both were covered with 
the dead and dying. "Have you struck your colors?" 
called out the British captain. "I have not yet begun to 
fight," repHed Jones. Both vessels took fire, and the 
British surrendered. The "Bon Homme Richard" sank 
the next day, and Jones sailed into a French port in the 
' ' Serapis. ' ' He was received with great joy by the French 
people. 

IRREGULAR WARFARE 

222. Wyoming and Cherry valleys (1778). Washington 
was watching the British in New York. He was roused 
by the Tories and Indians massacring the people in 
Wyoming and Cherry valleys. Washington ordered 
General Sullivan to take 5,000 men and punish the enemy. 
He defeated them completely on the site where Elmira 
now stands. He then laid waste the growing crops of 
the Cayugas and the Senecas. 

223. Plundering by the British. Storming Stony Point 
and Paulus Hook. The British were now desperate. 
They had failed in two campaigns (§210, 219) and had 
seen France come into the war (§216). They turned to 
robbing and burning towns in New England, New Jersey, 
and Virginia, as if to get even. 

The British had captured Stony Point on the Hudson. 
Washington selected "Mad Anthony" Wayne to recap- 
ture it. Wayne, trained by Steuben (§209), took 1,200 
picked men and with empty guns and fixed bayonets 
charged up the steep slope of Stony Point. He won 

(1779)- 

Paulus Hook, a part of Jersey City, had been fortified 
by the British. Henry Lee, "Light Horse Harry," 
bravely led 300 picked men at night and captured it. 



THE WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



135 



224. Benedict Arnold again. Washington had stood 
by Arnold (§197) because he was a brave soldier, but 
Congress refused to promote him. This angered Arnold, 
and he burned for revenge. Washington gave him com- 
mand at West Point, but Arnold agreed to turn the 
position over to the British. Only the arrest of Major 




THE STORMING OF PAULUS HOOK 



Andre, who was coming to meet Arnold, saved West 
Point. Andre was hanged. Arnold escaped to the Brit- 
ish forces, where he was given his reward, a command in 
the British army. 

WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 

225. The Revolution west of the Alleghenies. Ken- 
tucky County belonged to Virginia (§167). Daniel 
Boone lived in North Carolina, but went to Kentucky 
(1769) by way of Cumberland Gap (§27), where three 
states now meet. Harrodsburg (1775) and Boonesboro 
(1775) were established. 



136 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



Tennessee, a part of North Carolina, was settled by 
James Robertson at Watauga (1769). Later a fort was 
built on the NoUichucky by the Indian fighter, John 
Sevier. The men of both regions organized as miHtia and 
were ready to fight the Indians, allies of Great Britain. 




THE GEORGE ROGERS CLARK EXPEDITION 



226. George Rogers Clark and our western boundary. 

Clark had been in Kentucky and had seen the dangers 
from the Indians. He resolved to capture the British 
posts northwest of the Ohio and put an end to these 
dangers. Governor Henry of Virginia supported his plan 
with money and good wishes. He gathered about 150 
men. They left Pittsburgh (May, 1778), halted on an 
island near Louisville, and then rowed down the Ohio to 
the Tennessee. They hid their boats, marched across 
the country, and captured Kaskaskia and Cahokia 



WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



137 



Clark made friends with the French and the Spaniards. 
Hamilton, the British commander in Detroit, came with 
500 men to reenforce Vincennes. Clark did not wait, 
but made a dash across country in the winter for the 
fort. The men suffered terribly, since they marched for 
miles and miles through water. Hamilton was com- 
pletely surprised by the assult on the fort and surrendered 
Vincennes without a fight. The power of the British in 
the West was gone. 

227. The British overrun the far South. Defeated in 
the North, the British determined to get a foothold in 
the South. They captured Savannah^^ (1778) and restored 
British authority. In the summer of 1779 a French 
fleet joined General Lincoln in attacking the British, 
but was defeated. 




THE ASSAULT AT THE BATTLE OF SA\ ANNAH 

EarHer a British fleet had been roughly handled at 
Charleston by Moultrie behind his fort of palmetto logs 
(1776). The British now marched overland from Savannah 



138 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



and captured the city with Lincoln and his 3,000 Con- 
tinentals. Hundreds of people took the oath to support 




CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH DURING THE REVOLUTION 

the king, and Clinton left Cornwallis to conquer the rest 
of the state. 

228. A new kind of fighting. Marion,*^- Sumter, Pickens, 
and Williams now found a way of fighting even more 
puzzling to the British than the work of the minutemen. 



WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



^39 



With only small bands under them, they kept the enemy's 
forces in the Carolinas in constant terror. Armed with 
homemade swords, mounted on the swiftest horses, hiding 
in dense swamps or mountain fastnesses, they seldom 
slept two nights in the same camp. They would destroy 
a Tory camp at night and before daylight would be 
in some distant hiding-place; again they would sweep 










^j'^ 



MARION SURPRISING A BRITISH CAMP 



around the main British force, cutting off stragglers or 
charging pell-mell into their camp. But they were up 
and away before the British could recover from their sur- 
prise. In this manner these bold warriors kept alive the 
spirit of resistance. 

229. The battle of Camden (1780). Congress sent 
Gates to redeem the South. De Kalb (§213) was busy 
collecting reenforcements for the Americans. Gates 
joined him, took charge, and met Cornwallis at Camden. 
Gates and the militia fled at the first fire, but De Kalb 
and his Continentals gave the enemy one of Steuben's 



I40 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OP MAN 
famous bayonet charges. De Kalb fell mortally wound 
ed ^' Gates bv his cowardly act, had lost the day 










DE KAI.B AND THE MARYLAND AND DELAWARE CONTINENTALS AT CAMDEN 

230. The backwoodsmen at King's Mountain (1780). 

Cornwallis was elated. He started for Charlotte, North 
Carolina. From there he sent A^ajor Ferguson with 
1,200 men to rouse the Tories. The news of this ran far 
and wide. Soon Ferguson found himself surrounded on 
King's Mountain by backwoodsmen from three or four 
states. They charged up the mountain side, killed 
Ferguson, and captured his entire force. The Americans 
lost twenty-eight. The victorious men went to their 
homes, but they had turned the tide in the South. 

231. Greene takes command (1781). Washington 
was happy when General Greene took command in the 
South, and Morgan was put at the head of the remnant of 
De Kalb's Continentals. Cornwallis sent his most daring 
officer, Tarleton, to eatch Morgan, who had taken post at 
Cowpens. Morgan was too much for Tarleton and 
defeated and captured nearly his whole force. ^^ 



WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



141 



Greene was a great "Fabius" (§208). He knew Corn- 
wallis would be furious, and began a famous retreat 
with Cornwallis after him. Across North Carolina they 
went and hurried on into Virginia. Greene rested his 

troops and a blow then struck Corn 

walhs at Guilford Courthouse Greene 
had to retire, but Cornwallis lost so 
heavily that he retreated to Wilmmgton 
on the coast to get fresh supplies 

Greene^^ was left free 
to return to South Car- 
olina. He fought two 
drawn battles, at Hob- 
kirk's Hill and at Eutaw 
Springs. In both cases 





the British retreated. The only places held by them in 
the South at the end of the war were Charleston and 
Savannah. 

232. Washington sees his opportunity. When Lord 
Cornwallis reached Yorktown from North Carolina, 



142 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

word came that a French fleet was bound for Chesapeake 
Bay. Washington immediately decided to rush the 
American and French armies*^ from New York (§219) to 
Yorktown. It was a bold decision. But he was halfway 
to Philadelphia before Clinton saw Washington was not 
planning to attack New York. 

Philadelphia was wild with joy. Men crowded the 
streets cheering madly, and happy women threw flowers 
upon the dusty Continentals and the finely dressed French 
soldiers. "Long live Washington! He's gone to catch 
Cornwallis in his mouse trap!" cried the people. 

233. Yorktown the final victory (1781). From the head 
of the Chesapeake the French fleet under Count de Grasse 
carried the army to Yorktown. For nearly a month the 



C '"'0 



m, 









CARRYING THE OUTER WORKS .\T yORKT»\VN 

cannon from fleet and army knocked the British forts to 
pieces. The Americans and French stormed the outer 



WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 143 

works. The next night the British tried to break out, 
but in vain. On the very day that America was cele- 
brating the anniversary of Burgoyne's surrender (Octo- 
ber 17) CornwalHs raised the white flag. Two days later 
the British army, over 7,000 strong, marched out between 
parallel lines of Americans and Frenchmen. Washington 
stood at the head of one line, and Count Rochambeau 
at the hea'd of the other. The British played the old 
tune: "The World Turned Upside Down." 

234. What Yorktown meant to America. America 
was wild with enthusiasm as the news spread. The 
Liberty Bell rang a joyous alarm, and soon the streets 
of Philadelphia were alive with people although it was 
two o'clock in the morning. Congress marched to the 
Lutheran church and gave thanks for the victory. On 
every village green in America the people celebrated the 
great event. 

235. What the victory meant to France and England. 
A fast sailing vessel hastened to France. Paris was 
happy. Over 7,000 sons of France had joined hands with 
Washington to make victory sure. A thrill of hope must 
have shot through every heart that looked for better 
days in France. 

The Tories of England were discouraged. Lord North 
threw up his hands, crying: "Oh God! It is all over!" 
But stubborn old George III declared that he would rather 
give up his crown and retire to Hanover (§180)^^ than 
acknowledge American independence. 

The Whig leaders rejoiced. It was a victory for the 
people of Great Britain. Richmond had long hoped for 
such a victory, and Fox clapped his hands with joy. The 
younger Pitt had a few months before denounced the war 
in strong language. Finally George III was compelled 



144 



THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



to call to power again the Rockingham Whigs, the friends 
of America (§217).*'^ They made peace with America. 

236. The treaty of peace (1783). Congress appointed 
Franklin, John Adams, Jay, and Henry Laurens to go 
to Paris to meet men from France and Great Britain. 
By the treaty (i) America was declared an independent 
nation, (2) the Mississippi was made our western bound- 
ary (§226) and the Great Lakes our northern, (3) and 
east of the Mississippi, Florida was made our southern 
limit (see map for fuller explanation). 

237. Washington retires to Mount Vernon. The Brit- 
ish left New York, and Washington and his army entered. 
Later he met his generals to say good-by. He said: 
"With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave 
of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days maj^ 
be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have 




=*l-5r4? 







WASHINGTON BIDS FAREWELL TO HIS GENERALS 

been glorious and honorable." He took each general 
by the hand and_embraced him. He then went to 



WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 



145 



Whitehall Ferry, waved his hat, and bade them a silent 
farewell as he started on his journey. 










iNOM, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON 



Washington traveled to Annapolis to meet Congress 
and resign his position. Standing room was all taken, and 
a great crowd looked down from the galleries. Congress 
sat with their hats on (§41). Washington said, "I now 
have the honor .... to surrender into your hands 
[Congress'] the trust committed to me, and to claim the 
indulgence of retiring from the service of my country." 
He refused to take pay for his services of eight years 
but the money of his own which hehad spent was repaid. ^^ 

He and Mrs. Washington hastened to Mount Vernon, 
where a happy scene met their eyes. There, leaning on his 
staff, was old Bishop, the gift of General Braddock. The 
other servants were happy in seeing their "Master" and 
"Mistress" once more. All Christmas afternoon people 
came to pay their "respects and duty." Among them 
were stately dames and gay young ladies. The war was 
over, and Washington gave himself to making Mount 
Vernon more beautiful than before. The next year 
Lafayette came from France to visit him and renew the 
friendship begun on the field of battle. 



146 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 

WOMAN'S PART IN THE REVOLUTION 

238. What the people did at home. We have thought 
about armies and war so much that home things have been 
forgotten. Everybody felt the pinch of war, especially 
when armies came into their own neighborhoods. Every- 
body, too, had a part in it. Some had to join the army, 
and some had to care for the home folks. Sometimes the 
soldiers had to go home and help gather in the harvests, 
for the armies had to be fed. Clothing had to be made 
for the soldiers. Women had to work at their spinning 
wheels and looms much longer than in times of peace. 
Then, too, they had to help melt the lead to make bullets 
and had to cut gun "wads."^'' 

Then the men had to run their little forges or black- 
smith shops to make the flintlock guns. There were no 
breech-loading guns nor machine guns in that day, only 
those loaded with ramrods. 

There was no Red Cross then with its thousands of 
nurses to care for the soldiers. There were not many 
doctors to look after the sick or the wounded. But the 
war came home to people every time a battle was fought 
and there came a call for bandages and nurses. Some- 
tinies, too, the soldiers of each army were sent to live 
among the different families of the town or city where 
the army happened to be. 

239. Distinguished women of the Revolution. Women 
took a real part in this struggle. Hundreds of them dis- 
tinguished themselves by doing deeds calling for courage 
and resolution. 

One of the most famous women was Abigail Adams, 
wife of John Adams. She managed their little farm while 
her husband was in Congress or in Europe. Her letters to 
him were full of patriotism, even while the roar of British 



WOMAN'S PART IN THE REVOLUTION 147 

guns sounded in her ears. In writing him she made an 
appeal to him to have the Continental Congress favor 
woman suffrage. 

Faith Trumbull, wife of the governor of Connecticut, was 
at church one day. The minister called for a collection 
for the Continental army. She arose beside the governor, 
removed from her shoulders a fine scarlet cloak, the gift 
of a great French general, and laid it on the altar as her 
gift. The donation was large that day! More than 
a thousand meetings of governors, generals, and councils 
of safety were held in her home during the Revolution. 

Have you read the story of how Mrs. Murray played a 
trick upon the British ? They were hot after Washington 
through New York City after the battle of Brooklyn 
Heights. She invited the British generals to tea in her 
splendid home. When the tea party was over, Wash- 
ington was out of danger ! 

Brave MolHe Pitcher! Her husband loaded a cannon 
at Monmouth (§219). He was killed, and Mollie took his 
place and drove home shot and shell until the British 
retreated. 

Lydia Darrah, a brave Philadelphia Quaker, saved 
Washington's army from a surprise attack and perhaps 
from capture. At her home one night the British officers 
laid their secret plans. She stole out of bed and overheard 
them. Early next morning she rode to Washington's 
camp at Whitemarsh and told an American officer 
of their plans. Washington and his men were ready! 

The women of the South were just as brave and did the 
same kind of heroic deeds as the women of the North. 
Indeed, had it not been for the noble self-sacrifice of the 
women of the Revolution, the war would have been harder 
to win. 



148 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 
SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, American Revolution, I, 191-344; 
II, 1-290; Roosevelt, Winning of the West, II, 1-84; Hart, Formation 
of the Union, 77-89; Lodge, Story of the Revolution, I, 136-278; II, 
1-216; Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion, 245-256; Sloane, French 
War and the Revolution, 312-347; Morse, Franklin ("American States- 
men Series"), 2-268; Hart, Contemporaries, II, 467-469, 474-476, 
485-678; Bassett, Short History, chap, ix; Van Tyne, American 
Revolution. 

References for pupils: Mace, Primary History, 187-198, 211-219, 
230-239; Mace, Washington, 103-140; Wright, Stories of American 
Progress, 1-40; WiUiams, Stories of Early New York; Blaisdell, Hero 
Stories from American History, 105-122; Beebe, Four American Heroes, 
17-68; Hart, Source Book, 147-149, 151-160; Sparks, Men Who Made 
the Nation, chap, i; Baldwin, Conquest of the Old Northwest, 145-178; 
Drake, The Making of the Ohio Valley, 11 6-1 21; Coffin, Boys of 'yd; 
Hart, Camp and Firesides of the Revolution. 

Fiction: Churchill, Richard Carvel; Cooper, The Pilot; Thompson, 
Alice of Old Vincenncs; Eggleston, A Carolina Cavalier; Bryant, Song 
of Marion's Men; Kennedy, Horseshoe Robinson; Ogden, A Loyal 
Little Redcoat; Mitchell, Hugh Wynne; Ford, Janice Meredith; Henty, 
True to the Old Flag; Cooper, Spy; Parker, Thaddeus of Warsaw; 
Bryant, Green Mountain Boys, The Battle of Bennington. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Write about what France did for America. 2. Imagine yourself 
a member of the Continental Congress and write what you see and 
hear about the Declaration of Independence. Dra'matize this event. 

3. Report to your newspaper on the activity of Franklin in France. 

4. You are a spy in Philadelphia (1776-78). Write to Washington 
at Valley Forge what you see and hear. 5. Tell, in a few pages, the 
story of Alice of Old Vincennes. 6. Washington is at Mount Vernon 
again. He is happy and receives visitors. Lafayette visits him. 
Dramatize these events. 



CHAPTER X 
THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

AN EXPERIMENT IN STATE SOVEREIGNTY 

240. Making colonies into states. Before the Declara- 
tion of Independence royal governors began to run away 
from the danger they saw coming. Their governments 
fell to pieces, and the people of the colonies set up com- 
mittees of safety. These committees managed things 
until a governor was chosen or until the people had elected 
their assembly. 

The people of New Hampshire acted first (1776). The 
constitution was to be above laws made by the legislature 
and received its authority from the people of New Hamp- 
shire. Massachusetts was the last state to set up a con- 
stitution (1780). 

The people were not so democratic then as now, for 
only the constitutions of New York and of the New 
England states gave the people the right to vote for gov- 
ernor. Elsewhere he was chosen by the legislatures or 
by a council. The right to vote, too, was generally limited 
to men who paid taxes or held a certain amount of prop- 
erty (§158). In some cases voters still had to meet 
religious tests (§158). 

New Jersey bears the distinction of having given women 
the right to vote. But this privilege was taken away in a 
few years. 

241. Making the states into a confederation. For a 
long time we have seen the colonies growing together 
(§186). Benjamin Franklin thought the time ripe for 
a confederation (§169) and introduced a set of articles 

149 



I50 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

(1775). Congress thought it too soon. Richard Henry- 
Lee's motion for independence contained a proposition 
for a confederation (§201). But the more Congress dis- 
cussed the question of confederation, the more it dis- 
agreed. On the question of independence the thirteen 
colonies could be one, but on the question of union among 
themselves they were still thirteen! 

Not until Burgoyne's surrender did Congress agree on 
a plan (November, 1777). According to these Articles of 
Confederation the states were to be in authority above 
Congress. Congress now sent the Articles to the state 
legislatures for adoption. But not until just before the 
battle of Yorktown did the last legislature ratify the 
Articles of Confederation (1781).^^ 

242. The states supreme. The most striking fact 
about this new constitution was its weakness. But the 
people were afraid it was too strong. They had just 
finished a long, hard war with the strong government of 
England, and they did not now propose to set up one 
of the same kind in their own midst. 

The Articles gave Congress only a little power. Con- 
gress could advise the states to raise so many men or so 
much money for Washington's army. The states, being 
supreme, could do as they pleased. By the Confederation 
each state had one vote in Congress. This made Dela- 
ware as important in Congress as Pennsylvania. 

243. Industry and trade grow worse. At the close of 
the war Congress could not pay the army. It had bor- 
rowed money from France and Holland and from its own 
people. But it could not pay back these loans because 
Congress had no power to raise money by taxes. It was 
driven to making millions of paper currency or "con- 
tinental" money. ^- But this was only promises to pay 



AN EXPERIMENT IN STATE SOVEREIGNTY 



I SI 



money. The army in its despair threatened to attack 
Congress, but Washington prevented it. One of the 




PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY CONGRESS DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

officers proposed that Washington be made king, but he 
indignantly rejected the proposal. 

244. Congress not able to protect our trade at home or 
abroad. Some states taxed goods brought in from other 
states. These states in turn "boycotted" the offend- 
ing states. Men who manufactured goods complained 
because Congress had no power to lay a tariff to protect 
their trade from foreigners. Great Britain put a high 
tariff on American goods and also passed laws shutting 
out our trade from her West India markets. 

Things were going from bad to worse. Several hundred 
soldiers, feeling deeply angered at Congress, marched on 
Philadelphia. Congress ran away to Princeton. In 
Massachusetts the people were resisting the courts 
because creditors were suing debtors for their money. A 
rebelHon broke out, led by Daniel Shays (1786). 



152 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 



Leading men shook their heads, asking each other, "Will 
the Confederation break up in anarchy?" 

EFFORTS FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

245. Men who worked for a better government. The 

great majority of leaders were in favor of a stronger gov- 
ernment. Among them was Washington. He remem- 
bered the bitter days of Trenton and Valley Forge! 
From 1783 to 1787 he was kept busy writing letters to 
men who wanted his opinions on the Confederation. To 
his own Governor Harrison he wrote: "An extension of 
federal power would make us one of the most wealthy, 
happy, and powerful nations on the globe." To his friend 
John Jay he answered: "I do not conceive that we can 

long exist as a nation without 
a power which will pervade 
the whole union." 

Alexander Hamilton, 
though a young man, stood 
next to Washington in argu- 
ing for a new plan of govern- 
ment. He wrote a famous 
letter on the defects of the 
Confederation (1780). Be- 
sides, he published a paper 
called the Continentalist. 
In this he sought to turn 
men's minds toward govern- 
ment of greater powen 

James Madison, a young 
man of statesmanlike 
notions, worked hard for a better government. Besides 
these, there were many in almost every state in favor 




ALEXANDER HAMILTON 



EFFORTS FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT I53 

of improving the Articles of Confederation. Other things 
were working in the same direction. 

246. Spain tries to close the Mississippi (1786). When 
Louisiana fell to Spain (§176), she controlled the greater 
part of what is now the United States. Our people had 
for a long time claimed the right to use the Mississippi 
River to the Gulf. The Spanish now offered to give our 
merchants trade rights in Spain itself and in the West 
Indies if we would give up our right to use the Mississippi. 
Jefferson wrote : "I will venture to say that the act which 
abandons the navigation of the Mississippi is an act of 
separation between the eastern and western country." 
The settlers west of the AUeghenies threatened to secede 
if Congress gave away their right to use the Mississippi. 
This situation called for a more powerful government. 

247. Western lands given to the Confederation. 
Congress delayed long over the question of what to 
do with the western lands. It was a most happy deci- 
sion to give them to the Confederation. All the states 
having claims patriotically gave them up on two condi- 
tions: (i) that the land be disposed of for the common 
benefit; (2) that this region be cut up into "distinct 
republican states." 

Two states kept a portion. Virginia kept Kentucky 
and a region in Ohio to pay her soldiers, and a small tract 
in Indiana, called Clark's Grant, to reward men of the 
Vincennes expedition (§226). Connecticut kept a part 
of Ohio known as the Western Reserve. Congress sur- 
veyed and opened up the rest of this land to the soldiers 
of the Revolution. 

248. The old Northwest Territory. "A region of rich 
soil, great forests, beautiful prairies, splendid lakes and 
rivers, and inhabited by Indians and wild animals from 



i=;4 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 



the quail, prairie hen and wild turkey to the squirrel and 
the buffalo." This region took in the future states of 

Ohio, Indiana, Illi- 
nois, Michigan, 
Wisconsin, and 
part of Minnesota. 
Settlers poured in 
from the South 
and from New 
England. 

One of the wisest 
and one of the last 
acts of the Con- 
gress of the Con- 
federation was to 
give this region the 
Ordinance of 1787. 
It contained four 
main points: (i) 
It laid the foun- 
dation of our gov- 
ernment in the 
territories. (2) It 
prohibited negro 
slavery. (3) It 
gave religious free- 
dom to all settlers. 
(4) It declared in 
favor of encourag- 
Every state now 




HE NORTHWEST TERRITOR\ 



ing forever the means of education. 

had a strong bond tying it to the Union. 

249. Commerce leads the way to constitutional conven- 
tions. After meeting with Washington (1785) to talk 



THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 155 

over trade, delegates from Maryland and Virginia decided 
to call a great convention at Annapolis (1786). Only 
five states sent delegates, but among them were Madison, 
Hamilton, and Dickinson. These men -sent out a call for 
another convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. 
Congress hesitated, but when the news of Shays's rebel- 
Hon came, it joined in the call. Washington had held 
back at first, but now the crisis had come, and he decided 
to go.^3 All the states but Rhode Island sent delegates 
to this convention. 

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 

250. The great men of the Convention. Fifty-five men 
took part in making the Constitution. These men were 
well fitted to do their work. Twenty-nine were col- 
lege graduates, and many had served in Congress, ia 
the army, or abroad. The four master-minds of the 
Convention were Washington, ^^ Franklin, Hamilton, and 
Madison. Washington was chosen president. 

Other men already famous were John Dickinson (§184) ; 
William Paterson, author of the New Jersey plan ; Roger 
Sherman and Ellsworth of Connecticut; Gouverneur 
Morris and James Wilson of Pennsylvania; Mason and 
Randolph of Virginia; Davis of North Carolina; and the 
Pinckneys and John Rutledge of South CaroHna. 

251. Disobeying orders. Most of the states had com- 
manded their delegates to revise the Articles. But the 
Convention went to work on a new plan worked out by 
Madison. It favored the large states. It made the num- 
ber of representatives and senators from each state depend 
upon its population. The small states were soon up in 
arms. They still wanted equal representation in Congress 



156 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

(§242). They favored the New Jersey plan, which only 
amended the Confederation. 

Disputes arose, and Washington asked: "If to please 
the people we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can 
we afterwards defend our work ? ' ' FrankHn declared that 
he had lived long enough to know that "God governs 
in the affairs of men," and that they "had come together 
to consult and not to contend." In the meantime the 
delegates from Connecticut brought in a compromise 
providing that all the states be equal in one house, the 
Senate, and in the other house, the states should be repre- 
sented according to population. This arrangement pleased 
the small states and was adopted. 

252. Other compromises. A contest arose between the 
slave and the free states over representation and direct 
taxation. The Constitution decided to add three-fifths 
of the slaves to the whites in any state to fix the number 
of representatives it should have and the amount of direct 
taxes it should pay. 

A third dispute arose over commerce. The northern 
states wanted commerce regulated by a majority vote 
of Congress. But the southern states were afraid that 
laws would be made against their export trade (§142). 
It was finally agreed that Congress must not tax exports, 
but should control both our foreign and home trade by a 
simple majority. The foreign slave trade was permitted 
to go on for twenty years longer. 

253. A bundle of compromises. Some one has declared 
the Constitution to be a "bundle of compromises." We 
have seen the Convention compromising between the large 
and small states, the free and slave states, the com- 
mercial and farming states. There were many other 
compromises, such as between those wanting the people 



THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 



157 



Convention. Gouverneur 



to vote directly and others who wanted the people to 
vote only indirectly. Only in the case of representatives 
were the people to vote directly. Senators were not to 
be voted for directly, but were to be elected by their own 
state legislatures. The presidents were to be voted for 
indirectly, and the judges of the Federal courts were to be 
appointed by the president. 

254. The last days of the 
Morris could write plain. 



strong English. To him 
the Constitution was given 
to write it out in final 
form. Only thirty-nine 
members signed it. A few 
had gone home angry while 
others refused to sign for 
various reasons. 

On the last day Franklin, 
looking at Washington's 
chair on which were 
painted the bright rays of 
a half-sun, said : "I have 
often, in the course .of the 
session, looked at that sun 
without being able to tell 
whether it is rising or setting, 
and not a setting sun." 




GOUVERNEUR MORRIS 



Now I know it is a rising 



THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 

255. Why some great men opposed the Constitution.^^ 

The Convention sat with closed doors, and the people 
did not know exactly what kind of government had 
been made. Some feared that too much power had been 



158 



THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 



given to the nation and that the states would lose their 
importance. Would not the^ president become a king ? 
At least there was no Bill of Rights in the Constitution 
(§156). North Carolina and Rhode Island did not ratify 
until after Washington's election. 

256. How the states voted. The states elected dele- 
gates to state conventions which were to accept or reject 
the Constitution. There were many hot debates in these 
conventions. Delaware won the double honor of not only 
being the first to ratify, but of doing it unanimously. 

Both New Jersey and 
Georgia came under 
the "New Roof," as 
the Constitution was 
now called, by a unani- 
mous vote.*'^ But the 
friends of the new gov- 
ernment had hard 
fighting to get it rati- 
fied in Massachusetts, 
V^irginia, and New 
York. 

The best arguments 
in favor of the Consti- 
tution were found in a 
newspaper written by 
Hamilton, Madison, 
and Jay. These articles 
took up the Constitution point by point and explained 
it to the people." 

Richard Henry Lee wrote the most important argu- 
ments against the Constitution, called the "Letters of a 
Federal Farmer." 





THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 159 

257. Celebrating the Fourth of July in Philadelphia 
(1788). Nowhere were the people happier than in the 








A VIEW OF THE SENATE CHAMBER IX AN EARLY DAY 

City of Brotherly Love when the good news came that 
Virginia was the tenth state to ratify the Constitution. 
They celebrated in grand style. Salutes were fired at 
sunrise, and the bells of the city rang a noisy welcome to 
the day as 5,000 persons gathered for the parade. 
"Every trade, every business, every occupation of life 
was represented." When the procession ended, James 
Wilson (§250), a great friend of the Constitution, gave an 
oration. The rejoicing went on far into the night. This 
was a fitting celebration of the greatest event of the 
American Revolution by a city that had seen the meeting 
of the First Continental Congress, the signing of the 
Declaration of Independence, and the meeting of the 
Constitutional Convention. 



i6o THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 
IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 

258. The new Congress or the legislative department. 

The old Congress had but one house , but th^ new Congress 
has two. The old represented the states, but the new, 
the people. The members of the lower house of Congress 
are elected by the people of the states every two years. 
From this fact it may turn out that the representatives 
are of one party while the president belongs to another. 
To the lower house is given the right to originate money 
bills. This is an ancient custom coming down to us from 
the English constitution. 

The Senate is supposed to be conservative.^^ Its mem- 
bers are required to be older. Then, too, they were 
elected by the state legislatures until 1 9 1 7 . The term is 
three times as long as a representative's. These points 
make men steady-headed and careful in their work. 
When the Senate is considering a treaty or the appoint- 
ments to the cabinet or to the United States courts, it 
may go into secret session. 

259. Important powers of Congress. The old Congress 
lacked the power to raise money by taxation (§242). The 
new Congress was given that power. 

The Confederation could not raise an army or navy 
without permission of the states. Congress can do both. 

Commerce at home and abroad was in a bad state under 
the old Congress, but now Congress has the right to regu- 
late trade with foreign nations and between the states. 

Congress was given the power to coin money, a right 
it did not have before. The Constitution forbids the 
states to make paper money. 

One of the most far-reaching powers granted Congress 
is what is called "implied powers." These powers were 
granted in a clause which declares that Congress may 



IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION i6i 

make all laws necessary to carry into effect all powers 
granted by the Constitution to the new government. 
This clause stands next in importance to the so-called 
"Preamble" to the Constitution. 

260. The president the head of the executive depart- 
ment.^ The old Confederation had no president. The 
Convention decided to take the governor of the states as 
a model for the president (§158). A few wanted the presi- 
dent to serve for life, but the majority wanted him for 
a seven years' term.^^ They decided on four years with 
an opportunity for reelection. How to choose a president 
was a hard problem. The Convention finally decided in 
favor of electors chosen by each state, equal in number 
to the sum of its representatives and senators. The 
electors meet in each state and vote for a man to be presi- 
dent and for one for vice-president. 

261 . Some things the president may do. The president 
may help Congress make laws by signing them. If he 
does not sign the bill, it becomes a law after ten days. 
If he vetoes a bill, it does not become a law unless 
Congress passes it again by a two-thirds majority. 

The great work of the president is to carry out the laws. 
For this purpose he has the cabinet, 1"° with its many 
departments, and the army and the navy. The presi- 
dent's right to a cabinet is one of the impHed powers of 
the Constitution (§259). He may call out the mihtia 
to suppress rebellion such as Shays 's or Dorr's rebellion 
(§244). He can call upon United States troops to protect 
the mails, as in Cleveland's time. 

The president, as commander-in-chief of the army and 

navy in time of war, has "war powers." These again are 

implied powers. The two most famous examples of the 

use of war powers are Lincoln's in the Civil War and 

7 



i62 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

Wilson's in the great World War. No English king since 
George III has used so great power as did these two men 
of the people. 

The president may make treaties and appoint ministers 
and judges of the United vStates courts, by the advice and 
consent of the Senate. 

262. The United States courts, or the judicial depart- 
ment. The Confederation had no judges with the power 
to try men for breaking a law of Congress. Very few 
men in the Convention objected to having United States 
judges. They decided to make the judges a more con- 
servative body than the Senate. In the first place, they 
removed them as far from politics as possible; they are 
nominated by the president and passed on by the Senate ; 
they serve during good behavior and can be removed 
only by impeachment. Besides, their salaries cannot 
be cut down once they are in office. 

263. Cases to be tried by United States courts. The 
following trials must take place in the United States 
courts: (i) if a difference between two or more states 
calls for a trial; (2) if a man in one state sues a citizen in 
another state; (3) if ambassadors or other foreign officers 
bring suit; (4) if any suit arises under the Constitution 
or laws made by Congress. It is easy to see that the 
persons named would probably get more perfect justice 
in a Federal than in a state court. 

264. Officers of the courts. The attorney-general of 
the United States is a member of the cabinet. He may be 
looked upon as the head officer of the judicial department. 
Under him are the district attorneys, who begin and carry 
on cases coming before the courts. The Federal marshal 
acts as the sheriff of the courts to carry out their orders. 
He is also under the attorney-general. 



IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 163. 

265. Laws declared unconstitutional. Suppose Con- 
gress or the legislature of a state passes a law not permitted 
by the Constitution. What can be done about it ? Some 
one may bring a suit before the court to test the law. The 
court will then declare the law is no law. 

When the Supreme Court first declared a law uncon- 
stitutional, some men were alarmed. They feared that 
the court would became more powerful than Congress, 
They even denied that the Constitution gave the court 
this power. The right of a Federal court to declare a law 
unconstitutional is not expressed in so many words in the 
Constitution but is an implied power. The use of this 
power has had a good effect. It has made Congress 
more careful in making laws. 

The courts of no other nation have this power. When 
the Parliament of Great Britain passes a law, no king 
can veto it and no court of the country can declare it 
null and void. 

266. Amending the Constitution. The men who made 
the Constitution felt that it was not perfect and that with 
experience to help them, they would wish to cure these 
defects. Hence the makers proposed two ways of chang- 
ing the Constitution, (i) If amendments pass both 
houses by a two-thirds vote, the proposed change is sent 
to the state legislatures or to state conventions. If three- 
fourths of the states approve the change, the amendment 
is added to the Constitution. (2) Or, if two-thirds of the 
legislatures of the states request it. Congress must call a 
national constitutional convention which may propose 
amendments. Such amendments, ratified by three- 
fourths of the states, become a part of the Constitution. 
Nineteen amendments have been made by the first plan, 
but none by the second. 



• i64 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

267. The first ten amendments. One of the most seri- 
ous objections made to the Constitution in the ratifying 
conventions (§256) was that it contained no Bill of 
Rights. Madison introduced in the first Congress (1789) 
many amendments intended to correct this defect. When 
they had been passed upon by Congress and the states, 
there were only ten left. These ten amendments have 
been called our "Bill of Rights.""'' Their purpose is to 
make sure that the government shall never take away the 
"personal liberties" of the people, such as freedom of 
religion, of speech, and of the press. The people are also 
protected in their right to assemble and petition for redress 
of grievances and in their right to a jury trial. The 
Ninth and Tenth Amendments were adopted to make 
clearer the line separating the powers of the Federal and 
the state governments. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Fiske, Critical Period of American His- 
tory, 145-315; Elson, Side Lights on American History, 24-53; Lodge, 
Hamilton ("American Statesmen Series"), 68-78; Tyler, Patrick 
Henry, 266-300; Gay, Madison, 88-127; Hosmer, Samuel Adams, 
3S9-401; Bassett, Short History, 240-254; McMaster, History of the 
American People, I, chap, i-iv; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, II, 
153-361; Hart, Source Book, Nos. 64-70; McLaughlin, Confederation 
and Constitution, chap. iii. 

References for pupils: Hart, Formation of the Union, 104-133; 
Mace, George Washington, 140-152; Guitteau, Preparing for Citizen- 
ship, chap, xiii; Barstow, A New Nation, 3-24; Great Epochs in Ameri- 
can History, IV, 51-64. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Visit land grants in Indiana and Ohio and write home accounts 
of. each. 2. Get letters from Washington, Patrick Henry, James 
Madison, and Samuel Adams on the Confederation. What does each 
think of a new government? 3. Dramatize the Constitutional 
Convention. 4. Attend one of the ratifying conventions and report 
the debates. 



CHAPTER XI 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 

268. The number of people in the United States (1790). 

When Washington became president (1789) he was at 
the head of nearly 4,000,000 people. As in colonial days, 
the great majority lived near the ocean and on farms. 
Only three persons in every hundred lived in cities 
(§108). The most important places were Philadelphia 
with 42,000 people; New York, with 33,000; Boston, 
18,000; Charleston, 16,000; and Baltimore, 14,000. These 
were called cities then, but now they would hardly be 




Area settled in 1790 
frp7^ Area settled betweer 
l^^^^^iygO and 1800* 

Population under 2 per s^. mi. not 



THE GROWTH OF SETTLED AREA IN I79O AND 180O 

looked upon as such. In spite of the war our population 
increased more than a milHon during that time. 

165 



i66 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

269. The spirit of the American people. We have seen 
great changes in the colonists during their 150 years in 
America (§107). Further changes were wrought by the 
Revolution. The Americans were made more democratic 
by fighting against an autocratic king and by driving 
many of the Tories out of the country. But we must 
not forget that Americans were not even then as demo- 
cratic as we are. They still clung to the idea of birth, 
wealth, and position as giving persons standing in life, 
although ability and character were more and more 
coming to the front. 

270. Still imitating Europe. We had won our political 
independence but in many ways were still dependent 
upon Europe. We still loved EngHsh trade the best. 
Our fashions came from London although our friendship 
for France brought in some French ways. But the 
French language stood in the way. Books were still few, 
and Americans read foreign authors. American poets 
and story-writers still imitated the English. Colleges 
and public schools, coming down from colonial days, 
were still English in their ways. 

271. The Revolution and education. War always 
destroys. No new colleges sprang up during this time, 
and few public schools. Students had to go to war instead 
of going to school. Outside of the cities there were hardly 
any schools during the war. They were very much like 
those of colonial days (§125). In harmony with the more 
democratic ways caused by the Revolution, girls were 
gradually admitted to public schools, and young women 
were permitted to teach both boys and girls. 

But the long period of agitation and war produced a 
fine race of orators and writer?. The public learned much 
by listening to them, or by reading what they wrote. 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 167 

Newspapers increased during this stormy time and led 
the people in a political way. 

272. Changes in religious life. The great change in 
religions during colonial times had tended toward tolera- 
tion (§130). The Revolution had started a nation-wide 
movement in favor of uniting all churches of the same 
faith into one body. This change was very much like 
the movement for a stronger national government. 

The English church in America at a convention in 
1783 declared in favor of calling itself the Protestant 
Episcopal Church in America. The Methodists grew 
during the Revolution, and in 1784 they held their first 
General Conference. This Conference controls the 
Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. 

The Presbyterians formed their General Assembly in 
1789, and the Roman Catholics secured their first bishop 
in 1790. The Baptists and the Congregationalists still 
held, with slight changes, to the old independent congre- 
gations (§70). 

The Christians or Disciples, the Universalists, the Uni- 
tarians, and the Shakers arose in this period of agitation. 
These sects were all very democratic in their church 
government. 

273. Religion and morality in practice. Some of the 
states still taxed people to pay for the support of minis- 
ters (§130), but this, too, was passing away under the new 
influence. The Constitution had declared that Congress 
could not fix on the people any reHgious belief (Amend- 
ment I). 

But there was little practical sympathy for the unfor- 
tunate and the criminal. The jails were generally foul 
places, too foul for bodily health and too foul for mental 
health. The hardened criminal, the debtor who could 



i68 THE BEGINNIXGvS OF THE NATION 

not pay, and the first offender, old or young, were thrown 
together in the jail. There were few asylums or reforma- 
tories, and the insane or the pauper had to be taken care 
of at home or sent to jail. The old custom of punishing 
people in public was gradually passing away. 

274. Slavery. During the war slavery had existed in 
all the states, but it never struck deep root in the North. 
It could not be used with profit on small farms and in 
hand industries. Such slaves as were found in this 
section were mainly house-servants. The Quakers still 
preached against slavery (§111), and a few in other 
churches raised their voices against it. The Revolution, 
with its emphasis on the Rights of Man, joined hands 
with these religious forces and aroused a stronger senti- 
ment against slavery. This was strong enough to abolish 
slavery in New England and Pennsylvania by 1790. 
New York and New Jersey followed a bit later. 

Many people in the South opposed slavery on moral 
grounds as well as because of its deadening effect on indus- 
try. No one in the Constitutional Convention spoke 
stronger words against the institution than George Mason, 
a Virginia slaveholder. 

275. Industry during the Revolution. We could trade 
but little with Europe during the war. Hence we had 
to depend upon home industries. The best of our people 
were proud to wear homespun. This made a demand 
upon the farmer for more wool and cotton, and upon the 
spinners and weavers for more thread and more cloth. 

New industries sprang up under war conditions, and 
old ones were made larger. Gunsmiths were in demand 
all over the country, but the towns of Springfield, Massa- 
chusetts, and Waterbury, Connecticut, became great 
gunmaking centers. In Maryland cannon balls were 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 169 

manufactured. ^''- Saltpeter mines had to be opened up to 
make powder. Shoemakers, harnessmakers, and saddle- 
makers found themselves hard pressed to meet the 
demands of the army. 

A New York "Society for the Promotion of Arts, Agri- 
culture, and Economy" offered premiums for linen, yarn, 
and woven stockings, and in Boston a spinning school 
was set up to teach women to spin. In Philadelohia a 
factory was opened which employed 500 people in weaving 
linen and woolen cloth. Lancaster and Reading, Penn- 
sylvania, were important manufacturing centers. In- 
New Jersey, there were forty-one fulling machines for 
finishing the cloth made in farmhouses. In the South 
planters raised enough wool and cotton to clothe their 
servants and themselves. '°''' 

276. Industrial and political revolutions. We have 
already seen how the American Revolution changed the 
minds of men in England and France (§235). Toward 
its close two mighty changes in England and France 
began to influence America. The French Revolution 
made a powerful appeal to Americans because the French 
were throwing off the rule of the king and were setting up 
a republic (§287). Long before these events England had 
been undergoing a mighty industrial change. Men have 
called it the Industrial Revolution. This change was 
caused by three inventions: (i) a spinning machine, 
producing many threads at once instead of one; (2) a 
weaving machine, producing many yards of cloth instead 
of one; (3) an engine using steam instead of muscle to 
drive machinery. 

277. How the machine came to America. These inven- 
tions gave England a big advantage over other nations. 
She passed a law punishing anyone for taking these 



I70 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 



machines or drawings of them out of the country. But the 
shrewd Yankee soon found a way. He offered generous 
rewards to anyone who would set up these machines in 
America. Several experiments were made. But in 1789 
Samuel Slater, an Englishman, came. He had memorized 
an English mill with its machinery. He set it up at 
Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The machines in this mill 
were turned by water, and then the hand wheels for 
spinning flax and wool began to change to the new inven- 
tion. Likewise, the spinning and weaving began to 
change from the home to the factory. In the nooks and 
corners of America people still use the wheel and the 
hand loom. 

278. The cotton gin, an American invention (1793). 
Near Savannah, Georgia, lived Mrs. Nathanael Greene 

(§231). A Yankee school 
teacher, EH Whitney, was 
paying her a visit. He 
heard planters tell how 
hard it was to separate the 
seed from cotton. Only 
five or six pounds a day 
was a man's work. This 
did not pay. Whitney put 
his mind to work and soon 
had a machine ready which 
separated the seeds from 
300 to 1,000 pounds of cot- 
ton per day. This inven- 
tion produced a revolution in the cotton industry. The 
year before, the South sent 630 bales to England; the 
year after, 7,000 were exported; and by 1800, 79,000 bales 
were sent abroad. The cotton industry increased by 




1^ Icy ^ ^ 



1 



V, 



•^f--*-'' 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 



71 



leaps and bounds. The price of slaves rose, and the 
demand for new cotton lands increased. Cotton mills 
sprang up in the North, and it became harder to free 
the slaves. 

279. The new West. Even before the Revolution, we 
saw a new West growing up around the sources of the 




^m^^.' 



EMIGRANTS LEAVING FOR THE WEST 



Ohio and in the Allegheny regions (§167). The hardy 
sons of the East and South now pressed rapidly west- 
ward along old Indian trails leading to Kentucky, Ten- 
nessee, and Ohio. wSome were attracted by the stories of 
the adventures that awaited the settler. Others were 
drawn by the beauty of the country, the richness of the 
soil, and most of all by the great supply of rich, cheap 
lands awaiting them. 

Several families in their Conestoga wagons usually 
made the journey together. The women and children 



172 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

rode in the wagons or on horseback, while fathers and sons 
looked after herds of cattle or flocks of sheep if they had 
them. At night they "camped out," well guarded by dog 
and gun. They were thankful when a river was reached 
big enough to carry them near their settlement. This 
was a hard, slow way to travel, and we shall soon hear 
these settlers calling for better roads and waterways 
between the East and the West. 

280. The trade of the new West. These hardy people 
had only a few things to sell, but they needed to sell them 









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in the best market. Only a few things, such as cloth, nails, 
hides, fur, and ginseng, could be put on pack horses and 



THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 



173 



sent eastward over the mountains. The settlers loved to 
trade in their old homes, but there were no good roads, 




TRANSPORTATION BY WATER BY MEANS OF THE FI.ATBOAT 

and it was hard to get there. Their heavy articles, such 
as flour, bacon, and cattle, had to float down some stream 
to the Ohio, and on down the Mississippi to New Orleans. 
Here. the goods were transferred to ocean-going vessels 
and carried to the cities of the Atlantic coast and the 
markets of the world. 

What it meant to the Union, let Washington tell:'"* 
"The western settlers stand, as it were, upon a pivot. 
The touch of a feather would turn them any way. They 
looked down the Mississippi .... for no other reason 
than because they could glide down the stream." But 
the Spaniards were foolish enough to charge the settlers 
heavy duties. The settlers demanded the right to trade 
free of charge. The Spaniards in turn seized their boats 
and cargoes and left the angry owners to tramp their 
long way home, telling the story to other backwoodsmen. 
They threatened to rise and drive the Spaniards into the 
Gulf. But in 1795 Spain granted the free use of the 
mouth of the Mississippi to western trade. 



174 THE BEGINNINGvS OF THE NATION 

281. Little improvement in ways of travel. There had 
been but little change in travel by land or water (§151). 
Between the larger towns, stagecoaches carried passengers, 
and mail carriers arrived about once a week. The stage 
went from Boston to Philadelphia in about eight days. 
Freight wagons reached Pittsburgh from Philadelphia in 
about twenty days, charging $2.00 per hundred pounds. 
Now it costs but a few cents for such a load. 

On the water men still used sail and oar (§151). Flat- 
boats and sailboats were the larger vessels used. But 
in this very period experiments were being made which 
promised to revolutionize river trade and travel. More 
or less successful efforts were made in New England, the 
middle states, and in the South, to invent a steamboat. 

WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT (1789-97) 

282. The first national election. The first election 
under the Constitution was very different from elections 
today. There were no excitement, no orators, and no 
torchlight processions. Each state followed its own plan 
of voting. The electors all voted for Washington, as was 
expected. John Adams was elected vice-president.'"^ It 
was Virginia and Massachusetts again (§196). 

283. The first president. The man who had led their 
armies and who had been head of their Constitutional Con- 
vention was now going to put into effect the Constitution 
he had helped to make. From Alexandria, his home town, 
he and Mrs. Washington began the journey to New York, 
then the capital. All along the way they were made to 
feel how greatly beloved they were. At Baltimore, their 
neighboring city, they were welcomed by flags and 
bunting, and by shouting people; in Philadelphia, by 
laurel and liberty caps, ringing of bells, and booming of 



WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT 



175 



cannon; in Trenton, by a triumphal arch resting on thir- 
teen pillars. As Washington passed under the arch, 
maidens, strewing s 

flowers, came for- 
ward to meet him. 
What memories 
Princeton and 
Trenton must have 
recalled (§207) ! 

New York Bay 
was black with 
people in boats, 
shouting and 
singing. Warships, 
both home and for- 
eign, fired salutes. 
Congressmen, 
governors, and dis- 
tinguished citizens 
escorted Washington to the home in which he was 
to live. On April 30 he stood in old Federal Hall, his 
hand upon the Bible, and took the oath as president 
(Art. II, §1, ^8). His hand trembled as he read 
his inaugural address. He was now to travel a road no 
man had trod. He was now the president of a republic. 

284. Appointing great men to office. Among the great 
men appointed to hold office were Thomas Jefferson, 
secretary of state, to look after our relations with foreign 
nations; Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, 
to look after the money and debts of the country; 
General Knox, secretary of war and the navy; and 
Edmund Randolph, to take charge of the questions of 
law coming before the new government. These men 




THE INAUGURATION OF WA'iHINrTON 



176 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 



made up what has been called the cabinet. They were to 
advise the president on all questions about which he wanted 
to know. Sometimes he asked each one separately for 
his advice, and at others he called them together to get 
the benefit of their joint wisdom. 

The Constitution did not mention these departments 
by name, nor did it contain the word " cabinet. "^•^'^ But 
the Constitution did mention 
a Supreme Court with judges. 
Washington appointed that 
distinguished Huguenot 
lawyer, John Jay, as first judge 
of the Supreme Court (§189). 
Washington was careful to put 
good and true men in office in 
spite of the fact that many 
persons wrote letters urging 
him to appoint their friends. 
285. Paying the national 
debt. The old Confederation 
could not pay its debts 
(§243), and in 1790 these 

lOHN JAY 

amounted to about $50,000,- 
000. They were made up of what we had borrowed 
from our citizens, from our friends, France and Holland, 
and the debts of the different states. ^''^ Hamilton said 
the new government should take the latter over and 
pay them. This meant that the Federal government 
had to find some means of raising a large sum of 
money. Hamilton boldly attacked this problem by 
favoring the following measures: (i) a tariff on foreign 
goods to bring money into the treasury; (2) the cre- 
ation of a United States bank (1791) to handle the 




WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT 



177 



money of the country; (3) an excise tax, a tax on 
distilled liquors. All of these measures became law. 
Some money from these sources was set aside to pay 
the national debt, and some to pay the running expenses 
of the government. 

286. Opposition. Origin of political parties. Debates 
in Congress over these questions showed great differences 



■•^^ffili 











THE FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA 

of Opinions, especially those on the United States bank. 
Washington took the opinion in writing of Hamilton 
favoring, and Jefferson opposing the bank. Washington 
signed the bill (Art. I, §7). On other measures, also, 
disputes arose until there were formed two groups of men 
in and out of Congress. 

Hamilton represented one group who called themselves 
Federalists. 1"^ They believed in making the national 
government strong and in using all the powers granted 
and impHed in the Constitution. Because Hamilton's 
financial measures had improved business, the trading 
states supported him. The Federalists were accused of 
favoring monarchy and of building up a " money power ' ' 
that would keep laborers and farmers working for many 
a year to pay off the debt. 



178 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

Jefferson led the opposition, which took the name of 
Repubhcans.'"^ They beHeved in strong state governments 
and in Congress using only those powers named in the 
Constitution. Jefferson drew most of his support from 
the planting states and the frontier communities. He 
believed in the common man, disliked big cities, and was 
afraid of the Federal government getting too much 
power through Hamilton's measures. 

THE ORIGIN OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY 

287. The French Revolution raises hard questions. 

This revolution was a conflict in France between the king, 
the nobles, and the rich on the one side, and the peasant 
farmers and the poor of the cities on the other. The first 
class did not pay their share of the taxes, and the burdens 
fell so much the harder on the second class. The king, 
Louis XVI, was too weak to see justice done. Besides, 
his fine nobles and women wasted vast sums of money 
obtained by taxes. 

The king summoned a national congress, '^'^ called the 
Estates General, to save France from bankruptcy (1789). 
Lafayette was a member. Imitating America, the Estates 
drew up a constitution. But the French people had 
suffered too long. They overthrew their king, set up a 
republic, and abolished all titles. Finally they beheaded 
the king and queen. This led to war with the nations of 
Europe, including England. 

What will the United States do? France came to our 
aid in the Revolution, and ought we not to go to her aid? 

288. Washington consults his cabinet. Washington 
took the advice of his cabinet and sent forth a declaration 
that the United States would not take sides with either 
party in the war. This has been called a ' ' Proclamation 



THE ORIGIN OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY I79 

of Neutrality." The year 1793 marks the beginning of 
our policy of not taking part in European quarrels. 

But many Americans did not agree with Washington. 
They declared that he was favoring kings in their war 
against the French people. They held feasts, toasted 
the French, wore French colors, and called each other 
"Citizen" or "Citizeness" instead of Mr. and Mrs. 
Feeling ran high, the Republicans standing for France 
and the FederaHsts for England. 

289. Troubles over trade. The war in Europe made it 
dangerous for French and British ships to sail the sea. 
This left American neutral ships to carry much of the 
trade to both countries. But neither France nor England 
liked to see American ships carrying trade to the other. 
Now- any nation at war has the right to capture ships 
if they are caught carrying guns, powder, and other war 
stores to a blockaded port. 

But England went farther. She captured American 
ships carrying wheat, sugar, and coffee to France. Some 
of these goods came from the United States and some from 
the French West Indies, but England claimed the right 
to capture all of them. Besides, she held to the doctrine 
that "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman. "^^1 
Hence she searched American ships and in some cases 
seized American-born sailors because they looked like 
Englishmen. This act was called "impressing" sea- 
men, and aroused great indignation throughout the 
country. Men began to talk of war. 

290. Jay's Treaty (1794). Feeling in the West was 
hot. The settlers beHeved that England, which still 
held the western posts given us by the Treaty of 1783, 
was encouraging the Indians to attack us. Washington 
sent Jay to make a treaty with England. Jay secured 



i8o THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 

a pledge to give up the western posts, but failed to get 
relief for our seamen. Search and impressment went on. 
That part of the treaty in regard to our trade was so bad 
that the Senate refused to ratify it. The treaty prob- 
ably saved us from war. It was so unpopular that it was 
burned in places, and Hamilton was stoned in New York 
for defending it. 



HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN 

291. Washington refuses a third term. His death 
(1799). For eight years Washington had labored faith- 
fully and well. He had laid the foundations of the new 
government deep in the hearts of his countrymen. He 
refused a third election and retired to his beloved Mount 
Vernon, bearing the affections of the civiHzed world: He 
sent forth a farewell address 
carrying his good wishes to 
the people and expressing a 
desire that they avoid the dan- 
gers of party strife. He was 
happy on his farm once more. 
He died at the age of sixty- 
seven and was mourned by 
the people of all the world."- 
292. The race between 
Adams and Jefferson (1797). 
Adams and Jefferson had been 
great friends. Both were on 
the committee which made the 
Declaration of Independence, 
JOHN ADAMS ^^^ ^^^ .^^ author and the 

other its orator. One was minister to England and the 
other to France under the Confederation. But now they 




HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN i8i 

began to separate. Adams was a Federalist, and Jeffer- 
son was a Republican, and both were candidates for the 
presidency. Adams won the election by three electoral 
votes. Jefferson became yice-president (Art. II, §i, ^3). 

293. Relations with France again. France was angry 
because of Jay's Treaty, and for a short time there was 
war on the sea with that country. President Adams 
sent three men to France to make a treaty. But they 
were told that certain men^^^ Qf influence must be paid 
$250,000 before anything could be done. Americans 
were indignant. They declared that we had "millions 
for defense, but not one cent for tribute." The cause 
of France suddenly became unpopular, and everybody 
cheered for the President and joined in singing the new 
song, "Hail Columbia." Congress caught the enthu- 
siasm and voted to increase the army and to build more 
and bigger warships. 

294. The decline of the Federalists. The Federahsts 
found themselves riding a wave of popular favor. They 
took advantage of it to pass two laws: one to give the 
president power to order ahens out of the country without 
trial if they were considered dangerous; and the other to 
punish by fine and imprisonment speakers or writers who 
falsely criticized the government or its high officers. 
These are called the Ahen and Sedition laws.^^^ 

Some Federalists denounced these acts, and the Repub- 
licans were angry. The Sedition Act especially roused 
them, and when the courts began to send men to prison 
for violating it they said it was being used by the gov- 
ernment to stop free discussion of political questions and 
keep the Federalists in power. Jefferson and Madison 
seized their pens and wrote the Kentucky and Virginia 
resolutions, declaring the acts were a violation of the 



l82 



THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 



Constitution (Amendment I). Kentucky declared that 
any state might excuse its citizens from obeying such a 
Federal law. This was the doctrine of "nullification." 
It later made much trouble. 

Hamilton had shown his opposition to the Alien and 
Sedition laws. He also had criticized President Adams' 
administration. This further split the Federalists. 

295. The first real presidential campaign (1800). The 
candidates were Adams and Jefferson again. Adams was 
called an ' ' aristocrat. ' ' He was a bit reserved and did not 
welcome the common people to a part in the government. 
Jefferson was called a "mobocrat" because he sym- 
pathized with the people of France. He had great faith 

in the common people, and 
they naturally loved him. 
The Republicans pointed to 
what then seemed great ex- 
travagance. The cost of gov- 
ernment had risen from 
$3,000,000 in 1792 to $10,- 
000,000 in 1800. These argu- 
ments, taken with the split 
among the Federalists, led to 
their defeat. The electoral 
vote stood 65 for Adams and 
73 for Jefferson. 

But Jefferson was not yet 
president. Aaron Burr, a 
New York poHtical boss, re- 
ceived 73 votes also. The 
election was thus thrown into 
the lower house of Congress"^ (Art. II, §1, ^3), where 
the Federalists had a majority. It is supposed that 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 



HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN 183 

Hamilton's influence elected Jefferson because he thought 
Jefferson less dangerous than Burr. 

Just before leaving the presidency, Adams appointed 
as chief justice of the Supi-eme Court, John Marshall of 
Virginia. He was a Federalist, and his decisions saved 
the government from running too much toward States' 
Rights (§286). 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bogart, Economic History of the United 
States, chaps, x, xi; McDonald, From Jefferson to Lincoln, chap, i; 
Coman, Industrial History, 132-156; Elson, Side Lights on American 
History, I, chaps, hi, iv; Hart, Formation of the Union, 103-175; Hart, 
Contemporaries, III, 14-93, 255-343; Hart, Patriots and Statesmenf II, 
363-380; III, 15-85; McMaster, History of the People of the United 
States, II, 1-58, 135-142; Walker, Making of the Nation, 64-168; 
Lodge, Washington ("American Statesmen Series"), II, 42-46. 

References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 125-127; Mace, 
Washington, a Virginia Cavalier; Hart, Source Book, 166-183; Hart, 
Source Reader, III, 45-96. 

Fiction: Brown, Arthtir Mervyn; Mitchell, Red City. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Your great-grandfather kept a diary, 1 790-1 800. Report on 
the part telling how the people lived at that time. 2. Visit George 
Mason before the invention of the cotton gin and listen to him talk 
against slavery. Tell what he said. 3. Boys and girls are stationed 
at Alexandria, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Trenton, and New York Bay 
to witness the passing of Washington and Mrs. Washington. Tell 
what they saw. 4. Attend Washington's receptions. Tell what the 
people say about them. 5. Attend a banquet given in honor of Genet 
in Philadelphia. Write a report for a Federalist paper. 



CHAPTER XII 
THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 

JEFFERSON IN CONTROL (1801-9) 

296. The first Republican president. There was joy 
among Republicans when they learned of Jefferson's 
election. Fear filled the hearts of his opponents because 
they honestly believed that the government was on the 
road to ruin. Jefferson was a many-sided man. He 
was a planter, a scientist, and a philosopher. He corre- 
sponded with foreigners about inventions, tools for farm- 
ing, books, and poHtics. 

Jefferson has been called our shrewdest politician. He 
set out to win Federalists to his party and succeeded. 



\f\y 



\M'^ 'I 



■'^s_\\' 






ii 






MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF THOMAS JEFFERSON 

He said in his inaugural: "We are all Republicans; we 

are all Federalists." He declared in favor of "equal and 

184 



PEOPLING THE WEST 185 

exact justice to all men — peace, commerce, and honest 
friendship with all nations — entangling alliances with 

none Economy in the public expense — and the 

honest payment of our public debts." 

Jefferson was opposed to pomp and show. He knew 
that simplicity and economy appealed to most men when 
they had to pay the bills. Hence he put aside processions 
and riding in great carriages drawn by fine horses, as 
Washington and Adams had done. He walked to the 
new capitol"^ with friends and read his inaugural. He 
sent his messages to Congress to be read, while Washington 
and Adams had been driven there and read their mes- 
sages in person. 

297. A popular president. Jefferson made himself 
popular with all classes except the extreme Federalists. 
Congress did about as he wished. It cut down the army 
and navy, for JefTerson was a man of peace. It repealed 
the excise law, for it was unpopular (§285). Our trade 
with Europe was bringing millions of money into the coun- 
try (§285). Jefferson had appointed a famous financier, 
Albert Gallatin, a native' of Switzerland, to care for 
our money. By the end of Jefferson's first term he saw 
nearly half of our debt wiped out. Jefferson, too, had 
been troubled by "office seekers" (§284). He did not 
appoint many, because of the men holding office he said : 
"Few die and none resign." It is plain why Jefferson 
received so great a vote in the Electoral College (1805) for 
a second term. 

PEOPLING THE WEST 

298. The West calls again. We have seen how the 
settlers west of the Alleghenies felt about closing the 
mouth of the Mississippi (§280). The news suddenly 



i86 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 

spread over the West that the mouth of the river was 
closed and that Napoleon, the victorious French general, 



..v^' 



^.\^f 




FIRST SETTLEMENT OF LOUISVILLE 



had charge of it instead of Spain (1802). Napoleon had 
swept all Western Europe with his victorious soldiers 
and now began to dream of an empire in America, a revival 
of the New France that had been the dream of La Salle 

(§163). 

The rifleman of the West took down his gun, looked it 
over, and started for the place of meeting. He was either 
going to petition President Jefferson to stop Napoleon, 
or he was going to join his fellows, march to New 
Orleans, and settle matters. Napoleon had already 
changed his mind. The British navy stood in Napoleon's 
way. Jefferson had also written a note, probably seen 
by Napoleon, declaring that "there is on the globe one 
single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and 
habitual enemy. It is New Orleans." He also said that 
if Napoleon went farther, we should "marry ourselves to 
the British fleet and nation." 



PEOPLING THE WEST 



187 



299. The purchase of Louisiana (1803). Napoleon 
saw the point. If he did not, our minister, Robert R. 
Livingston, had convinced him before Monroe arrived that 
he must sell the whole of Louisiana or lose it. Jefferson 
had sent Monroe to buy only the Island of Orleans and 
West Florida. Both ministers were enthusiastic over 
buying the whole of Louisiana Territory and agreed to 
pay $15,000,000 for it. 

At one peaceful blow Jefferson had doubled the size of 
the United States. The Federalist leaders of New Eng- 
land were angry. They denied the right to buy Louisiana 
since that power was not given in the Constitution. 
Jefferson himself was in doubt ! But he took the advice 
of friends, since the West and South were bent on getting 
this region (see map for boundaries) . 

The frontiersmen were happy, and only a few of the 
wilder spirits among them joined Burr's treasonable 
expedition to the Southwest."^ 
Their commerce now had free 
outlet to the Atlantic states 
and to Europe. No doubt the 
purchase of Louisiana hastened 
the development of the Missis- 
sippi Valley. 

300. Lewis and Clark's ex- 
pedition to Oregon. Like 
Washington, Jefferson had a 
vision of the great future of the 
United States. The people 
knew Httle of the new country 
of Louisiana. But he decided 
that they should know more. He sent forth the first 
great expedition to explore this region and to gather some 




IVVETHER LEWIS 



1 88 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 

notion of its resources. Lewis and Clark headed a band 
of men who trained like soldiers for their task. They left 
the town of St. Louis (1804) and sailed and paddled up the 
Missouri to where Bismarck, North Dakota, now stands. 
Here they spent the winter. 

From this point they were guided by an Indian woman"^ 
up the river and across the mountains. They found the 
headwaters of the Missouri and the Columbia near 
together. This western river they followed until it 
flowed into the blue waters of the Pacific. There 
they remained all winter, writing up their journals and 
drawing maps of the region explored. In the spring they 
left and returned to the Missouri by way of the Yellow- 



7HE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 



stone River. The American people opened their eyes as 
they read the story of the mighty West. 

301. Our claim to the Oregon country. This expedi- 
tion gave us a firmer claim to this region. As early 
as 1792 Captain Gray, a fur trader, in the good ship 
"Columbia," saw this river and gave it the name of his 
ship. Our right was made still more secure by another 
fur trader, John Jacob Astor. He sent two parties to 



PEOPLING THE WEST 




ZEBULON PIKE 



Oregon: one directly across the mountains and another 
by way of Cape Horn. They planted Astoria (i8i i), but 
they were driven out the next 
year by British fur traders. Fur 
trading was still a factor in the 
making of the United States 

(§144)- 

302. Zebulon Pike also ex- 
plores the West. While Lewis 
and Clark were trying for the 
secrets of the Missouri and the 
Columbia, Lieutenant Pike was 
moving up the Mississippi to 
find its source. He reached 
Cass Lake but went no farther. 
After his return he was sent out 
to trace the boundary between Louisiana and New Spain. 
He followed the Missouri, then went up the Osage for a 
time and into Colorado. Here he climbed the famous 
peak which bears his name. He then crossed into Span- 
ish territory, was captured and taken to Santa Fe. The 
Spaniards took him to El Paso, where he was set free, and 
he finally reached home (1807). 

303. New states organized in the West. The new 
states organized since the Revolution were all in the West 
except Vermont (1791), the fourteenth state. 

Vermont, the Green Mountain state, was the first state 
after the original thirteen to come into the Union. 
Champlain, the Frenchman (§161), first saw this country 
(1609). ■ The French settled Fort St. Anne (1665). 
Massachusetts built Dummer (1724). New Hampshire 
and New York both laid claims to portions of Vermont's 
territory. The Green Mountain Boys, organized to 



igo 



THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 



resist New York's claims, did heroic service in the Revo- 
lution. Southern sympathizers from Canada invaded 
St. Albans (1864). This place was in turn headquarters 
for the Fenian invasion of Canada (1870). Vermont 
celebrated the Tercentenary of the discovery of Lake 
Champlain (1909). 

Kentucky, since the Revolution, had been making great 
strides. Over Boone's Wilderness road (§225), the 
people were pouring into this charming region. Both 
Lexington and Louisville had been begun during the Revo- 
lution. Kentucky contained 75,000 people in 1790, and 
was admitted as the fifteenth state in 1792. In 1800 she 
had a population of 220,000, and in 1810, over 406,000. 
Henry Clay had already come from Virginia and was 
capturing the western people by his eloquent voice and 
his winsome manners. On the soil of this state, not far 




EARLY LEXINGTON 



apart, were born those two sons of destiny, Abraham 
Lincoln (1809) and Jefferson Davis (1808). 



PEOPLING THE WEST 



191 



Tennessee (§225) was crowding Kentucky. Settlers 
were pouring in from the East and South. When the 







FORT WASHINGTON, CINCINNATI, IN I787 

first census was taken (1790) she was found to hold over 
3 5 , 000 people . With this showing she was admitted to the 
Union in 1796. Two of her early heroes were James 
Robertson and John Sevier, but the most famous man in 
all her history was General Andrew Jackson. 

304. Ohio the first of the old Northwest. Three 
flags had waved over Ohio: the French, the British, and 
the American. Ohio was the first child of the Ordinance 
of 1787 (§248). The Virginia Military Reservation and 
the Western Reserve had already been located (§47). 
Revolutionary veterans from New England, led by Gen- 
eral Putnam, settled Marietta (1788). In the same year 
Cincinnati was located. Here Fort Washington gave 
protection to the struggling soldiers of St. Clair's army, 
beaten by the Indians (1790). Mad Anthony Wayne 
won the final victory over the red men at Fallen Timbers 
and forced them to sign the Treaty of Greenville (1795) 



192 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 

vSettlers now rushed in from the South and settled around 
ChilHcothe, and those from the East settled around 
Cleveland. Ohio had over 40,000 people when admitted 
(1803), but in 1810 she counted more than 230,000. She 
shares with Virginia the honor of being the mother of 
presidents. Six were elected from Ohio, and two others 
were born within her borders. 

TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN 

305. The rise of Napoleon. Napoleon Bonaparte was 
born on the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean, then 
belonging to France. He was sent to a military school 
and became an artillery officer. He made himself famous 
by placing his cannon where they swept Paris free of a 
mob. He was sent to Italy (1796) at the head of a half- 
starved army, but won victory after victory over the 
Austrians. He was then sent to Egypt. 

He returned to France a great hero and had himself 
elected First Consul. For half a dozen years his armies 
were victorious. He was probably the greatest general 
that ever headed an army. He wished to rule all Europe, 
but the English navy was in his way. He decided to 
invade England, but in the battle of Trafalgar Nelson 
defeated the combined fleets of France and Spain (1805). 

306. Jefferson gets into trouble. Jefferson was friendl}'- 
with France and Napoleon (§298). Then England began 
to search our ships and impress our seamen again (§289). 
Jefferson did not want war and tried to make a treaty, 
but would not even show it to the Senate. He then tried 
the old Non-Importation Act (§181), but England was too 
busy with Napoleon to give attention to non-importation. 
Finally an English ship fired into an American vessel, the 
"Chesapeake," and compelled her to submit to search. 



TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN 



193 



The British officers carried away both British and Ameri- 
can seamen (§289). PubHc meetings denounced this 
attack and demanded war. 

307. Napoleon blockades Europe (1807). Napoleon 
decided to strike a great blow at England's source of 
strength, her trade. He blockaded Western Europe, and 
declared that no English goods or English ships should 
go into any of these ports. England was furious and 
declared that any vessels found sailing for France should 
be seized. American ships were between two fires. The 
English had the greater navy and could do more harm 
than the French, but between them, in a few years they 
captured over 1,000 American vessels. 

308. The Embargo strikes our trading and other 
economic interests (1807). Jefferson tried to get relief by 
the Embargo. This law simply forbade American vessels 
to leave home ports and English vessels to enter them. 
The loss of trade was intended to bring England to time. 
Although England suffered, she could not turn away from 
the struggle with Napoleon. But we suffered more from 
the Embargo than 
England did. It hit 
hard all parts of the 
country. The ship- 
owners and sailors of 
New England, the 
cotton and tobacco 
growers of the South, 
and the farmers of the 
West were all badly 
hurt. Smuggling 
flourished with Canada. Florida, and the West Indies. 
Much to his sorrow., Jefferson had to submit to the repeal 




HOW THE FEDERALISTS RIDICULED THE EMB.\RGO 



194 



THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER 



of the Embargo in the last days of his administration. 
It had failed to do the things he had hoped for. 

309. Madison president (1809-17). Madison had been 
a warm supporter of Jefferson since the beginning of 
parties (§286). Jefferson had shown his friendship by 
making Madison his secretary of state. Madison, like 
Jefferson, tried to keep on friendly terms with Napoleon. 
But Napoleon was tricky. In the Embargo days when 
American ships were not permitted to go to Europe, 
Napoleon captured some that went to France, but he said 
he was only aiding Jefferson in enforcing the Embargo! 

310. The Non-Intercourse Acts. The United States 
promised that if either England or France would repeal her 
laws against American trade, she would immediately 
open up trade with that one and refuse to trade with the 
other (1809). Napoleon seemed to. agree to this, but when 
American ships reached France he seized their cargoes, 

amounting to $10,000,000. 
311. The "War Hawks." 
The rising tide of war was 
best represented in the new 
Congress by men from the 
far South and the new 
West. These were nick- 
named "War Hawks" by 
John Randolph, ^''•' a Re- 
publican opposed to war. 
The ablest among them 
were Henry Clay of Ken- 
tucky and John C. Calhoun 
of South Carolina. Both 
had been fired by the Indian outbreaks which they 
supposed England had stirred up, and by the insults 




TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN I95 

heaped upon our ships at sea by both England and France 
(§307). Clay declared that we could defeat England in 
Canada. We had about 7,000,000 people then, and 
Canada less than 500,000. It seemed Clay was right. 
But he did not count all the factors. It was a hard road 
through the woods to Canada. Besides, not all our people 
favored war. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Hart, Formation of the Union, 176-206; 
Hart, Contemporaries, III, 31-72, 106-122, 331-422; Hart, Patriots 
and Statesmen, III, 87-191; Walker, Making of the Nation, 64-168; 
McMaster, History of the People of the United States, III, 53-307; 
Elson, Side Lights on American History, I, 54-79; Gay, Madison 
("American Statesmen Series"); Morse, Jefferson ("American States- 
men Series"), 210-212; Coman, Industrial History, 175-179. 

References for pupils: Earle, Stage Coach and Tavern Days, 253- 
264; Mace, Primary History, 241-300; McMurray, Pioneers of the 
RocJ^y Mountains, 1-40; Wright, Stories of Progress, 104-144; Buller- 
worth. In the Days of Jefferson, 32-162; Hart, Source Book, 181-200, 
226-228; Hart, Source Reader, II, Nos. 60, 76-80, 89-93; Conant, 
Alexander Hamilton; Seawell, Decatur and Sommers. 

Fiction: Hale, Man without a Country; Barr, Trinity Bells; Stowe, 
Minister's Wooing; Bynner, Zachary Phipps; Hale, Nolan's Friends. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. You live in 1890 and find a letter from your great-grandfather 
telling how they lived and what they did in 1790. 2. Write an essay 
telling of the "good old times" when Jefferson was inaugurated. 
3. Write a letter to an admirer of Washington giving reasons for 
thinking Jefferson ought to take his place as president. Some qne 
write a letter for John Adams as a proper candidate to succeed 
him. 4. Attend a banquet given in honor of Genet. Write about it 
for a Philadelphia newspaper. 5. You are in a theater. News is 
read of the X. Y. Z. Affair. Music strikes up the "President's March." 
The people rise and clap. Describe your feehngs to a friend. 6. You 
are the daughter of a senator in the time of Madison. Write a letter 
to your "chiun" back east telling of Dolly Madison and the Presi- 
dent's reception. Compare it with Washington's reception. 



CHAPTER XIII 



THE WAR OF 1812 

WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 

312. Declaration of war (1812). Hundreds of people, 
mostly Federalists, thought Napoleon was a military despot 
lording it over Europe, and that England was battling 
for the freedom of America as well as of Europe. 
These people, with Republicans opposed to the war 
who had put up De Witt Clinton of New York, 
came near winning the election in 1.812. Congress, 
after a hard fight, declared war by a small majority. '-" No 

sooner had war been declared 
than news came that Eng- 
land was taking steps to 
patch up the difficulty. 

The United States was far 
from being united in the war. 
A peace loving president had 
been rushed into war, and the 
United States was not 
prepared for it . The Repub- 
^t licans had cut down both 
army and navy (§297) and 
had done little toward get- 
ting ready. We had an army 
of a little more than 6,500 
men and a navy of twenty 
fighting ships. England had 
nearly, if not quite, 1,000 warships. Fortunately most of 
them had to be kept near home. Her army was large. 

196 




JAMES MADISON 



WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 



197 



313. Why Americans won in the West. The West 
was enthusiastic for the war. Led by General Harrison, 
western men defeated the Indians at the Battle of Tippe- 
canoe before war was declared (181 1). General Hull, sur- 
rendering his army, was a victim to Canadian dash and 
Indian cunning at Detroit. All the Northwest was now 
open. The people feared the Indian tomahawk and 
scalping knife. They called loudly for Harrison to recover 
Ohio and Michigan. 

While Harrison was gathering his forces for the invasion 
of Canada, young Captain Oliver H. Perry built a fleet 




PERRY AT THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE 



out of green timber and completely defeated the British 
ships at Put -in- Bay on Lake Erie (18 13). 

General • Harrison was now ready. The British and 
Indians under Tecumseh burned Detroit and retreated to 
Canada. Perry carried Harrison's army across the lake. 
He defeated the British in the Battle of the Thames 
(18 13). Among the slain was Tecumseh. 1-' 



igS 



THE WAR OF 1812 



314. Victorious fighting on the sea. The British 
laughed at our "fir built things," and poked fun at our 
"gridiron flag." The world opened its eyes when the 
British ship "Guerriere" searched for and met the "Con- 
stitution," and was captured near the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence (18 1 2). At the call of fife and drum, every man on 
the "Constitution" ran to his post. The sailors climbed 
into the rigging, the gunners double-loaded their cannon, 
and the powder boys ran for ammunition. Muskets and 
pistols were placed near at hand to be ready for boarding. 
Sand was scattered over the deck. 

The "Guerriere" had already opened fire, but Captain 
Hull waited until he was within pistol shot. The "Con- 
stitution" fired a whole broadside. A British mast fell! 
The ships came close together, and the American sailors 
tied them fast. Both crews were ready to board and fight 
it out hand to hand, but the ships drifted apart. The 







THE ENG'Vr.EMCNT OF THE "CONSTITUTION" AND "GUERRIERE" 

noise of cannon, the crack of muskets, the loud commands 
of officers, the groans of the wounded, the clouds of smoke, 



WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 199 

the powder-stained faces of the gunners, all joined to 
make an awful scene. 

As the two vessels parted, the rest of the "Guerriere's" 
masts fell. With great holes torn in her sides, she lay a 
helpless wreck, and soon struck her flag. "It took but 
half an hour, but in that half hour the United States rose 
to the rank of a first class naval power." 

315. Other sea victories. Soon after, the "Consti- 
tution" captured another British frigate, and was honored 
with the title of "Old Ironsides," although only a wooden 
vessel. 

The warship the "United States" captured her equal in 
rank, the "Macedonian." A number of smaller vessels 
won signal victories over small British ships. One of the 
most brilliant voyages was made into the Pacific by David 
Porter in the frigate "Essex." He captured more than 
he could care for. On board the "Essex" was young 
Farragut, a future naval hero (§464). 

On Lake Champlain Captain McDonough, with his 
little fleet of thirteen ships, forced every British ship in 
a fleet of sixteen to strike its colors (1814). This was the 
only clear-cut victory in the East. 

England had been mistress of the sea for so long that 
she could not beheve the news of these defeats. She 
turned her great warships toward America and soon wore 
out our Httle navy. 

But she could not reach all our privateers (§220). They 
swarmed in every sea, capturing British merchant ships. 
They took over 2,000 of them. The British shipowners 
were very anxious for peace. 

316. Victories were few in the North. The people 
in the middle and New England states were anything 
but enthusiastic over the war. Besides, many of the 



THE WAR OF 1812 



officers were hardly fitted for the hard campaigning 
against Canada. 

The expedition against Queenstown Heights, and the 
campaign to capture Montreal were both failures. 
Better fighting was done at Chippewa and Lundy's 
Lane, but our army was compelled to retreat (1814). 

317. Expedition against Washington and Baltimore 
(1814). A British expedition captured Washington and 







/". S^ 





Hull 

Harrison 



Dearborn 

Wilkinson — . ^ . 



■ '1 






burned the capitol in return for a like act by Americans 
in burning the capitol at Toronto. Both deeds were 
unsoldierlike. The British force then turned on Baltimore, 
hated because of its scores of privateers. The attack was 
beaten off. Francis Scott Key, detained on a British ship, 



WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 



wrote the stirring words of the "Star-Spangled Banner," 
when he caught sight of the flag still flying over Fort 
McHenry. 

318. General Jackson wins New Orleans (181 5). 
Jackson had already made himself famous by defeating 
the Indians. He was commanding western troops who, 
like their fathers in the Revolution, were sharpshooters. 

He gathered 6,000 riflemen at New Orleans. From 
behind breastworks he faced General Pakenham's 10,000 
veterans fresh from European battlefields. The main 
battle was over in twenty-five minutes. The British lost 
2,600. The Americans had 8 killed and 13 wounded. 
This victory 
blotted out 
many sore 
failures. 

This battle 
would never 
have occurred 
if the cable 
had been laid, 
for the treaty 
of peace had 
already been 
signed in Bel- 
gium at Ghent. 

319. The 

Hartford Convention (1814). From the beginning, we 
have seen New Englanders opposed to the war. Madison 
was suspicious and feared disloyalty. Finally delegates 
from New England met at Hartford to take measures of 
self -protection. The war party declared that this meeting 
was to break up the Union. It must have sounded strange 




202 THE WAR OF 1812 

to Jefferson and Madison to hear New England, once the 
stronghold of the Federalists, talking about States' Rights 
(§286)! But the war soon ended and the opposition 
died out. 

320. The Treaty of Ghent (1814). Napoleon had 
been overthrown in 18 14 only to come back suddenly 
with another army. His final defeat occurred at Waterloo 
at the hands of Wellington (18 15). Napoleon had 
taught the world many things about war, but he had used 
up much of the manhood of Europe in doing it. 

The prospect of peace in Europe probably showed the 
way when American commissioners met the British. 
They did not settle any of the questions that caused 
the war. These for the most part had been settled by 
the ending of the war in Europe. 

The Americans and the British were glad the war was 
over. Their merchants had suffered from privateers and 
from blockades, and taxes had been piled high. The 
American seaman now stood higher in the estimation of 
Englishmen than before. 

321. A hundred years of peace.'- From 1815 to the 
present there has been peace between the two great 
English-speaking countries. The Rush-Bagot Treaty 
(181 7) declared that along our Canadian boundary no- 
big forts should frown, and that no warships should sail 
on lake or river. But along this line of 4,000 miles the 
Canadian and the American peoples meet in mutual 
friendship. Differences have arisen, but the solid sense 
of the two countries has always found a happy way of 
settHng these disputes. 

322. The immediate results of the war. (i) A stronger 
national sentiment had grown up. We were proud of 
our navy and of men like Jackson and Harrison. The 



WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 203 

Federalist party soon died out. In 18 16 it had thirty- 
four electoral votes, and in 1820, not one. (2) Dare the 
RepubHcans recharter Hamilton's bank (§285)?i23 Con- 
gress passed the bill, making a bank over three times 
as large as Hamilton's. (3) The first tariff had given pro- 
tection to American manufacturers (§285). The Embargo 
and the war gave more by cutting off European goods. 
After peace foreign goods rushed in. Americans bought 
them because they were cheap. The manufacturers called 
for protection. Congress debated. Daniel Webster was 
against protection and John C. Calhoun for it. The 
bill was passed, and America became more independent 
of Europe. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 197-319; 
Babcock, Rise of American Nationality, chaps, v-xi. 

References for pupils: Hart, Source Book, 218-225; Great Epochs 
in American History, V, 1 1-41, 79-89; Tomlinson, Boy Soldiers of 18 12. 

Fiction: Barnes, Loyal Traitors; Brady, For the Freedom of the Seas. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. You are a boy in Harrison's army going to the Tippecanoe 
battlefield. Write a letter to your mother back in New York. 2. 
Imagine you are with the "Essex" in the Pacific and meet young 
Farragut. Write all about it in your diary. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

WESTERN MIGRATION AND INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 

323. The second wave of western migration. The 

flow of people at the close of the War of the Revolution 
brought in the first new states (§279). With peace there 
began a mightier rush to find homes in the West. People 
filled the region between the Allegheny Mountains and 
the Mississippi River, and by 1820 began to occupy the 
states just across the river. They held closely to the 
rivers for homes and for means of getting their crops to 
market. The wooded regions were settled first. There 
seemed to be a feeling against the prairies. 

324. How the western settlers lived. On the frontier 
the settlers lived over again the experiences of colonial days 
(§119). The dense forests had to be cut away to build 
their log houses, and had to be burned to make way 
for their little crops. Often the trees were "girdled" so 
they would die, and corn was planted between the dead 
trees. 

They helped each other to put up their houses. Neigh- 
bors for miles around came to "log rollings."'-^ For days 
the settler and his sons cut down trees and burned and 
chopped them into logs of proper length for rolling. On 
the day chosen the neighbors came. Sometimes the two 
strongest selected their men. The two groups went to 
work to see which could roll the greatest number of logs 
into heaps. There Was much rough fun, hard work, and 
plenty to eat. With the logs all burned, the farmer was 
ready to plow for corn or wheat. 

204 



WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTvS 205 



Besides raising grain to sup- 
ply his own table, he raised 
enough for his horses, cattle, 
and hogs. The hogs did not 
call for much, for they usually 
got fat on the mast, that is, the 
acorns, hazel and hickory nuts, 
and walnuts. 

325. How the wife's table 
was furnished. The frontier 
farmer's wife usually set her 
table with many kinds of whole- 
some food. Besides the meats 
raised, there were wild meats. 

The favorites were deer and 
turkey. Grapes and berries 
grew everywhere, and if she did 
not live too far south, the^house- 
wife could have the best sweet 
of that time, maple sirup. The 
great forests furnished homes 
for bees, and the farmer could 
add honey to his table. Pies 
from pumpkin and blackberries 
were plentiful. 

326. The call for internal im- 
provements. The country was 
scarcely settled before the 
farmers began to call for better 
roads, improved water-ways, 
and for canals. They wanted 
to sell some of their land, and villages and 
expected to grow into larger places if they could 




HOW SETTLERS MOVE 



towns 
count 



2o6 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



upon a regular stream of incoming settlers. Very soon 
Henry Clay, with persuasive vojce, was calling the atten- 
tion of Congress and of the country to his "American 
System." This "System" included internal improve- 
ments, a protective tariff, and a United States bank. 

327. The steamboat. "Fulton's Folly" (1807). Experi- 
ments in building steamboats had been made on different 
rivers (§282).^-^ Fulton, on the Hudson, had been most 
successful. After studying boats and engines in Europe 
he came home and built the "Clermont." 

Full of hope, a crowd gathered on the day for sailing. 
The boat moved from her place and stopped. Some 
shook their heads and said, "I told you so!" Fulton 
went below and fixed the machinery. The boat moved 
out and on to Albany, a distance of 150 miles, in thirty- 
two hours. The "Clermont" had a sail as a help, but 
depended mostly on an engine fastened to a pair of side 
wheels. 

Steamboats quickly appeared on the rivers in the east- 
ern states, and soon one was built at Pittsburgh (181 1) 

for the Ohio 
River trade. 
Another car- 
ried supplies 
to General 
Jackson at 
New Orleans 
(1814). Be- 
fore another 
year went by 
a steamboat 

was making its way from New Orleans, laden with goods 
from Europe, to the frontier town of Louisville (§226). 



^_jx _ 




. ^ ^^^^^^^^%t^»^^^^^^ 



^^^^^■'j-- '^^ 



THE CLERMONT STEAMING TO ALBANY 



WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTS 207 

This frightened the merchants of the East, and they 
at once demanded a protective tariff and better roads to 
the West. 

328. A race between New Orleans and the eastern 
cities. Before the steamboat came, there was a race 
between New Orleans and the cities of the East for west- 
ern trade. The raft and the flatboat carried the heavy 
products to New Orleans, but the Hghter things were 
carried on pack horses over the mountains to Philadelphia 
and Baltimore. So, too, great droves of hogs and cattle, 
fattened in the woods of the West, were driven to eastern 
cities. But the eastern merchants found it hard, slow 
work to send their clothes, hardware, and wooden articles 
over the mountains. When the steamboat came. New 
Orleans was far in the lead. Cincinnati sent her pork, 
Louisville her tobacco and hemp, and St. Louis her furs, 
to New Orleans. The value of the trade sent down the 
Ohio and Mississippi in 18 10 was over $8,000,000. 

329. The Cumberland or National Road. But the East 
had long been up and doing. Both Washington and 
Jefferson had recommended a roadway over the moun- 
tains. In 1806 the Cumberland turnpike was begun by 
Congress. This ran from Cumberland, Maryland, over 
the mountains to Wheeling on the Ohio. When finished, 
it was a smooth road 80 feet wide, with markers each 
quarter of a mile. It climbed the rocky sides of moun- 
tains, crossed wide chasms, and bridged large streams by 
great culverts made of stone. Along its winding way 
great crowds could be seen. There were emigrant wagons, 
pack horses, and men and women driving a cow, a few 
sheep or hogs to the western home. Coming eastward one 
saw droves of fat cattle and hogs for the eastern markets. 
Now and then one met a dashing stagecoach full of passen- 



208 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



gers; the horses were changed before the coach stopped 
shaking or the passengers had time to get a view of the 
scenery. It took just twenty-four hours to make the 
trip from Cumberland to Wheehng, from the Potomac 
to the Ohio. This was rapid travel for that day. 




SETTLERS MOVING WEST ALONG THE CUMBERLAND ROAD 

In 1820 Congress, stirred by the eloquent Clay, sur- 
veyed this road from Wheeling to St. Louis. It was 
called the National Road. In time it was built as far as 
Vandalia, Illinois. 

330. Early canals. The people of the older states were 
alive to the use of canals. Just after the Revolution 
Washington saw how western trade might be turned east- 
ward by a canal joining Chesapeake Bay and the Ohio. 
Virginia and North Carolina very early built the Dismal 
Swamp Canal. The Boston and Middlesex Canal was 
finished in 1803. Many canals were planned for New 



WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTS 



209 




TRAVEL ON rUL ERIE C^NAL IN 182S 



England and the middle states, but none was built until 
after the War of 1812. Their work began in earnest. 

331. The Erie . -^, 
Canal. Soon after 
the war Congress 
refused to spend 
money on canals. 
The states took up 
the problem. The 
Erie Canal was be- 
gun in 181 7. Peo- 
ple thought it could 
not be built; but 
De Witt CHnton, 
governor of New York, stood bravely in favor of it, 
and the canal was finished in 1825. Fun was poked at 
it as "Clinton's Big Ditch." It crossed swamps, rivers, 
and hills, and when first finished was 363 miles long, 
40 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. 

Governor Clinton and other leading men, with a 
"fleet" of canal boats, began a triumphal voyage from 
Lake Erie to the Atlantic. Celebrations occurred at all 
the important towns, and wherever a road crossed the 
canal the country folk gathered to witness the strange 
voyage in boats through the land. On November 4, 
with bells ringing, cannon firing, and surrounded by a 
large fleet, CHnton emptied kegs of water from Lake Erie 
into the ocean to signify that the Great Lakes and the 
Atlantic were forever united (1825). 

332. The effects of the Erie Canal. The canal paid for 
itself in ten years, and its immediate effects were far- 
reaching. Along its way thriving cities grew up : Buffalo, ' 
Rochester, Syracuse, Utica, Schenectady, Troy, and 



2IO THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

Albany. '2<5 The cost of freight was reduced to one-tenth 
its former cost. The result was that the canal became 
a great highway between the East and West. Even 
European goods could reach the towns of northern Ohio 
and Indiana by way of the canal and the Great Lakes. 
New York City won the advantage over all rivals and 
has become the greatest city of the United States. 

The remote effects of the Erie Canal have been as far- 
reaching. Pennsylvania took up the plan of building a 
canal from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, with a portage 
railroad to help in getting over the mountains. The 
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal joined Washington City to 
the Cumberland Road. Baltimore was successful in 
pushing the plan for a railroad. 

Of the new states, Ohio and Indiana were the most 
active canal builders. The most important canals ran 
from Cleveland south through Columbus to Portsmouth 
on the Ohio River. From Toledo another canal ran to 
Fort Wayne and through Terre Haute to the Ohio. 

333. The beginning of railroads. The successful rival 
of the canal was already here. But the railroad did not 




THE FIRST TRAIN OVER THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD IN I83S 

promise much at first. The rails were wooden or were 
s ripped with iron, and the cars looked like huge stage- 
coaches. On the first road the cars were drawn by horses. 
Massachusetts planned a road from Boston to Albany 



OLD STATES FEEL THE TOUCH OF LIFE 211 

to connect with the Erie Canal (1827). The next year 
work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, the 
first long railroad in America. A great ceremony took 
place. Charles Carroll of Carrollton, aged ninety-three, 
the only Kving signer of the Declaration of Independence, 
said, as he drove the spade into the ground : " I consider 
this among the most important acts of my life, second only 
to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." 

Peter Cooper built one of the first locomotives. To 
prove its usefulness it ran a race with a horse car. The 
horse won because the engine slipped a pulley. But it 
was plain that the locomotive could go faster and not get 
tired. Short lines were soon built in various parts of the 
country. 

THE OLD STATES FEEL THE TOUCH OF LIFE 

334. Old parts of the country move forward. In our 

enthusiasm over the new and growing West we must not 
forget that the East, too, had its problems to solve. Every 
region, old as well as new, felt the touch of new energy 
after the War of 181 2. The old states made improve- 
ments in their ways of living. New roads were built, 
canals were dug for trade and travel, and machinery 
for spinning and weaving was improved. These states 
were trying to hold their people from moving to the great 
West. One result of the westward movement was to 
make labor scarce and wages higher in the East. 

335. What the older parts did. The increase in the 
number of families called for more houses and barns. 
This created a demand for more lumber and more car- 
penters. The houses still were heated by wood burned 
in the great fireplaces (§121). Besides wood, the forests 
were furnishing timber for fences and shipbuilding. In 




THE ULD WATiiR SAWMILL 



212 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

every state a large number of small sawmills were slowly 
cutting away the giant forests. 

Mines in several regions were turning out iron to make 
the machinery for use in mills and factories. Iron ore 
was smelted mostly by charcoal fires, although in Pennsyl- 
vania coal was be- 
ginning to be used. 
Running water, still 
?^ P T^r°TT'^~lin?""'**T^J the cheapest kind of 

S-^^vfl |§_ 'J^ Af'S5^'> wheels in mill and fac- 
^^ ,V - " p^ (* tory. Steam was not 

-"*^ J^ " r^^^iis,'-' yet widely used. Hence 

wherever a sawmill or 
gristmill or factory was 
found along streams, large dams were built to furnish a 
strong flow of water. These dams were great fishing 
grounds for folks, young and old, on holidays or when 
the people waited their turn at the mill.^-^ 

336. What these changes meant politically. The men 
engaged in manufacturing goods joined the West in 
calling for internal improvements and a protective 
tariff. So also did the merchants seUing goods to western 
states who wished the young repubHc made independent 
of Europe. These men joined their political fortunes to 
"Young Harry of the West," as they called Henry Clay. 
Not all of the people of the older states favored internal 
improvements and a protective tariff. Some agreed with 
the Democrats that the states should build their own roads 
and canals. Hundreds of shipowners at first opposed 
the protective tariff. Their ships carried goods to Europe 
and Asia and did not always find it easy to get a return 
cargo, especially if they had to pay a high tariff on the 



NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 213 



goods brought back. The cotton raisers, too, opposed the 
tariff. They wished to sell to foreign nations. Foreign 
merchants wanted to trade manufactured goods for 
cotton. But the tariff forced the cotton raiser to pay 
a higher price for such goods. 

NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 

337. Population of the West from 1800 to 1830. At 

the close of the War of 181 2 there were 1,600,000 people 
living in the West (181 5). Northwest of the Ohio there 
were over 700,000 (1820), and southward, if we add Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee, the population was much larger. 
The people came to the "Old Northwest" in two streams: 
one from the east- 
ward, occupying 
the northern parts 
of Ohio, Indiana, 
Illinois, and even 
Missouri ; the other 
from the South, 
occupying the 
southern portions 
of these states. Six 
states were carved 
out of this region. 

338. Louisiana, 
the first state out 
of Jefferson's pur- 
chase (1812). Be- 
fore Louisiana 
came into the 
Union, the flags of three nations had flown over her soil. 
Her great city, New Orleans, in 18 10 contained over 17,000 




kN OLD FRENCH COURTYARD, NEW ORLEANS 



214 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

people. Its inhabitants were more than half French. 
They lived in their own "quarter" and spent a happy, 
jolly life. They were called "Creoles." Jackson made 
the city famous by defeating there some of Wellington's 
veterans (§320). Louisiana is a sugar-producing state. 

339. Indiana, the Hoosier state (1816). The first 
European on Indiana's soil was probably a Frenchman. 
The French won the hearts of the Indians and built Fort 
Vincennes. Indiana fell to the British (1763) and was 
won for the Stars and Stripes by Clark and his back- 
woodsmen (1779). As a territory in 1800 it included 
Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. General Harrison 
defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe (181 1). In the great 
tide of immigration to the West after the war, Indiana 
caught her share of the people hunting homes. Between 
1 8 10 and 1820 the population grew from 24,500 to over 
147,000. For fourteen years Abraham Lincoln made 
Indiana his home (1816-30). Oliver P. Morton was her 
great war governor (1861-65), and James Whitcomb Riley, 
the sweet singer, lived and died within her borders. 

340. Mississippi, the home of Jefferson Davis (1817). 
De Soto discovered the region now known as Mississippi 
for Spain (1539), but La Salle won it for France (1682). 
While it was in the possession of France, Tonty, the friend 
of La Salle, made the first settlement at Natchez (1690). 
The region fell to Great Britain (1763), but was surren- 
dered to the United States at the close of the Revolution. 
In 1804 Mississippi Territory, including Alabama, was 
set off, and in 181 7 Mississippi became a state. The 
population grew from 75,000 in 1820 to 136,000 in 1830. 
The siege of Vicksburg was the greatest event of its kind 
in the Civil War. Jefferson Davis, though born in 
Kentucky, had Hved most of his Hfe in Mississippi. 



NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 215 



341. Illinois, the home of Lincoln and Douglas (181 8). 

For ages the children of the red man had paddled up and 
down the prairie streams of Illinois. The French were 
the friends of the Illini tribe, and La Salle built Fort St. 
Louis at Starved Rock for them 

Clark made easy conquest of Kaskaskia and Cahokia. 
The first capital of Illinois was Kaskaskia. After the 
rush of people to the state, it was removed to Vandalia. 
Finally, by Lincoln's aid, Springfield secured it (1836). 







FORT DEARBORN, CHICAGO, AS A FRONTIER POST 

Lincoln and Douglas were early political rivals. The joint 
debates of Lincoln and Douglas over slavery drew the 
attention of the whole country. Chicago, now the second 
city of the nation, a frontier fort in 1803, was burned in 
181 2, and rebuilt in 181 5. In i860 its people numbered 
more than 100,000. General Ulysses S. Grant, an adopted 
son of the state, was the favorite northern commander in 
the Civil War. 

342. Alabama, the first home of the Confederacy 
(1819). Alabama was a favorite region with the Indian. 
The first French capital was Mobile, settled in 1702. 
This country fell to Great Britain in 1763 and to the 



2l6 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

United States in 1783. The territory of Alabama was 
set off in 1 8 1 7 and became a state two years later. The 
people numbered 128,000 (1820), and in 1830 reached 

over 309,500. The ablest 
and most fiery orator of 
the South just before the 
opening of the Civil War 
was W. L. Yancey of Ala- 
bama. Montgomery was 
the "Cradle of the Con- 
federacy." 

343. Maine, the last of 
the New England states 
(1820). We have seen 
Maine granted to Gorges 
and Mason (§79), and its 
union with Massachusetts 
(1652). When we won our 
independence, Maine was still a part of the older 
colony. For a long period it was a sort of frontier to the 
New England states. By consent of Massachusetts, 
Maine was put forward as a rival to Missouri for admission 
to the Union. Maine quarreled with New Brunswick 
over her boundary. Webster made a treaty with Eng- 
land and settled the trouble. Maine, among the early 
states, has been the one to hold firm in the prohibition 
of the Hquor traffic (1851). 

344. Missouri, the home of General Pershing (182 1). 
Missouri was the second child of the Louisiana Purchase. 
France gave it to Spain (1763), and it was returned to 
France by a secret treaty (1800). Missouri Territory 
was marked out when it had 20,000 people (181 2). 
Later, people from the South came here with their slaves 




WILLIAM LOWNDES YANCEY 



NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 217 

because much of the soil was fine tobacco land. Missouri 
with its 60,000 people asked for admission to the Union 
(18 1 9). The quarrel over the Missouri Compromise 
kept it out until 1821. St. Louis, the largest city of the 
Louisiana Purchase, was settled in 1764. 

As a center for the fur trade St. Louis has held first 
place for a long time. It welcomed the world to its doors 




ST. LOUIS IN 



to witness the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904). 
Missouri is the home state of General Pershing, who was 
born at Laclede. 

345. The race between free and slave states. The 
cotton. gin had given a new meaning to slavery (§278). 
A contest arose to keep equal the number of free and slave 
states coming into the Union. After Louisiana entered 
there were nine of each, and their votes in the Senate 
were equal (§251). Then followed Indiana, a free state, 
and Mississippi, a slave state. Illinois was free and 
Alabama slave. But when Missouri asked to come in 
(§344) before Maine, the North objected. Both Congress 
and the people now debated the question. 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



346. The Missouri Compromise. Congress refused 
to admit one state without the other. For over a year 
the question was before the people. They became 
very much excited. Jefferson declared: "It sounded 
like a fire bell in the night." Henry Clay and others 
brought about a compromise: (i) Maine was admitted 
as a free state; (2) Missouri as a slave state; and (3) 
slavery was forever forbidden in the Louisiana Purchase 
north of the southern boundary of Missouri, or the line 
of 36°3o'. The excitement soon died down. 

LATIN AMERICA AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE 

347. Spain's trouble with her colonies. We have seen 
Spain fail to get a foothold in North America except in 
Mexico and west of the Rocky Mountains (§19). She 
lost Louisiana to Napoleon and was forced to sell Florida 
to the United States. But she still held sway in Central 

and South America, except in 
Brazil and in Guiana. 

Spain herself fell under Napo- 
leon's power, and her colonies 
were left to shift for themselves . 
They opened trade with both 
England and the United States. 
After Napoleon's power was 
gone, Spain was ruled by a weak 
but despotic king. When her 
colonies demanded more rights, 
they were denied. One by one 
they rebelled and set up inde- 
pendent governments. 

348. Heroic struggle of Spanish-America (1816-22). 
Spain made a desperate effort to hold her colonies. 




LATIN AMERICA AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE 219 

Two men stand out as heroes in the struggle for inde- 
pendence : San Martin in the La Plata region and Simon 
Bolivar, who has been called the "Washington of South 
America," in Venezuela and Colombia. The American 
people sympathized with the South Americans. Henry 
Clay, warm-hearted and enthusiastic, roused Congress to 
recognize their independence. ^^^ In the meantime Mexico 
and Central America, too, threw off the Spanish yoke. 
How are the mighty fallen! Only Cuba and Porto Rico 
left of all that vast empire in America ! 

349. The Holy Alliance. European rulers after the 
the time of Napoleon formed what has been named the 
"Holy Alliance." Its purpose was to keep down revolu- 
tions by the people and to suppress such men as Napo- 
leon. This Alliance had a black record. It had already 
put down revolts in Italy and Spain and had put the bad 
rulers back on their thrones. Now Spain asked its help 
to get back her colonies. Russia, Prussia, and Austria 
were members, but England had refused to join. Her 
people sympathized with the Spanish colonies. Besides, 
she did not wish to lose her growing trade with them. 
England, therefore, asked the United States to join in 
protesting against the effort to reconquer these states for 
Spain. John Quincy Adams, ^^^ Monroe's secretary of 
state, advised against uniting with England in such a 
protest, but urged the President to make his own state- 
ment. 

350. The Monroe Doctrine. The Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, the Proclamation of Neutrality (§288), the 
War of 181 2, all point to the fact that America plans to 
work out her own experiments in republican government, 
and that she will not permit any nation to hinder her in 
making them. Hence President Monroe, urged by his 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



secretary, sent forth to the world this declaration: (i) 
The American continents have assumed a free and inde- 
pendent position, and hence are 
not to be open to future colo- 
nization. (2) We have recognized 
the independence of the Spanish- 
American republics, and must 
look upon any act "for the pur- 
pose of oppressing them or con- 
trolling in any other manner their 
destiny" as an unfriendly act 
toward the United States. 

The immediate effect was to 
keep the peace. The Holy Alliance 
did not aid Spain, and no other 
nation has since tried to colonize any territory in the two 
Americas. With the exception of MaximiHan in Mexico, 
the Monroe Doctrine has kept out foreign nations and 
has given the nations to the south of us time to get 
on their feet. 

The meaning of England's offer to share the burden of 
such a declaration shows how quickly old feelings arising 
out of the War of 181 2 were passing away. But the 
best proof of this is seen in the hundred years of peace 
celebrated in 191 5 between Canada and the United 
States. What an example this ought to be to Europe! 




J'^MES MONROE 



THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 

351. Monroe president (1817-23). The era of good 
feeling. When Monroe came up for reelection (1822), 
only one electoral vote was cast against him.'^" The 
Federalist party was dead. With its people united, the 
nation from 181 5 to 1840 was springing forward with 



WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 



renewed life. We have already seen some of its great 
strides (§§327, 330, 333). 

One reason for this rapid growth was the fact that the 
whole nation had forgotten its party quarrels. The 
people looked upon President Monroe in his last term as 
bringing in an "era of good feeling. "i^i 

352. The common man gains more influence. We 
have seen the influence of the common man increasing 
from colonial days (§107). The new states, as they 
came into the Union, gave all men the right to vote. The 
old states had to give him the vote to keep him from 
leaving for the new states. This made the country 
more democratic. The result was a cry against the cus- 
tom of having Congress nominate the president. This 
custom had arisen in John Adams' term because no 
other seemed so natural. But now it was called ' ' undemo- 
cratic" (1824). The state legis- 
latures made the nomination until 
a more democratic way was found 
in the national nominating con- 
vention (1832). 

353. John Quincy Adams presi- 
dent (1825-29). The election of 
John Quincy Adams was famous 
because all of the candidates be- 
longed to the RepubHcan or Demo- 
cratic-Republican party. They 
were Adams, Clay, Crawford, and 
Jackson. Calhoun was elected vice- 
president. No man had a majority 
of the electoral votes, and the 
election went to the House of Representatives (Art. II, 
§1, ^3). The race was between Adams, an eastern man, 




JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 



and Jackson, a western man. Henry Clay, opposed to 
a military hero for president, threw his influence for 
Adams, and he was elected. Adams then selected Clay 
for his secretary of state. 

The Jackson men were furious. They declared Clay's 
influence had been bought. No proof of this charge was 
ever discovered, but the slander followed Clay all his life. 
The friends of Jackson found fault with every measure 
that Adams and Clay favored. They both favored high 
protective tariffs, internal improvements, and friendship 
for South America. 

354. A new kind of candidate and a new campaign. 
Jackson's men had begun to hurrah for him three years 
before the election. He was nominated at first by 
western legislatures (§352). They declared he was born 
on the frontier, had known poverty, had fought the 
Indians, and had defeated the British. Now he was going 
to defeat the poHticians and put the people in power, 
f ^ Jackson was 



a fine-looking 
man. He was 
every inch a 
soldier, tall, 
straight, well 
dressed, and 
he looked men 
through with 
his " e .a g 1 e 
eye." Jackson 
loved a quar- 
rel and even fought duels. He was very polite in the 
presence of ladies. No man had warmer friends or more 
bitter enemies. Two of Jackson's most famous friends 




THE LOC C^BIM IM WHICH \NDKfc.\V J> 



WEvST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 



223 



were Martin Van Buren, a New York politician, who 
followed him as president, and Thomas H. Benton, a 
senator from Missouri with whom he once fought a duel. 




COMMITTEE OF CITIZENS BIDS I^CKSON WELCOME 



355- Jackson at New Orleans again. Jackson politi- 
cians introduced the custom of showing their candidate 
to the people. Other candidates had been too dignified. 
But the people needed only to see warm-hearted and 
enthusiastic Andrew Jackson to admire him. 

The anniversary of his great victory was the time 
chosen (January 8, 1828) (§318). From Tennessee to 
New Orleans his journey was a triumphal procession. A 
committee came up the Mississippi River to Natchez to 
greet him. 

The boats then dropped down the river to New 
Orleans. Near the city the river was packed with boats 
filled with people. The housetops and the river banks 
were crowded. Visitors from far-away New York had 
come to bring him the welcome of that state. Veterans 



224 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 




ANDREW JACKSON 



who had stood with Jackson when the British charged 
came to greet the great commander (§318). The ringing 
of bells, the booming of cannon, 
and the waves of human hurrahs 
were overpowering. For four 
days the celebration went on. 

There could be only one result 
from this kind of campaign- 
ing, Jackson's overwhelming 
majority. 

356. How the people acted at 
the inauguration. The spoils of 
office. The people came in great 
crowds to see their hero take 
office. They felt that his elec- 
tion had somehow saved the 
country from a great danger. They pushed into the 
White House, and in their mad rush to see the President, 
clambered upon the furniture with their muddy boots, 
and spilled the pails of drink brought for their enjoy- 
ment. Some people — politicians and editors of Jackson 
newspapers — came for less patriotic reasons. They 
came to get office. In one year Jackson dismissed from 
office over 700 men, some of whom had been appointed 
by Washington. 

Only one good result flowed from the spoils system. It 
gave the common man a deeper interest in national 
poHtics. From this time forward, "rotation in office" 
became the rule until long after the Civil War. 

357. Jackson, the fighting president. From the day 
Jackson took office for eight years there was a constant 
battle. He fought Clay, Calhoun, Webster, and other 
statesmen; he carried on a long struggle with the United 



WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 



225 



States bank; he fought nulHfication by South Carolina, 
his native state ; he fought the speculators ; he went into 
the arena of social life and opposed people who refused 
to do as he did in social matters. Jackson was a fighter 
in the presidency as well as on the field of battle. He 
stirred up so much opposition that he was nicknamed 
"King Andrew I." 

358. New parties and nominating conventions. From 
1803 to 1823 the Republican party was splitting (§353). 
This party was formed to oppose the use of strong national 
measures, but no one can fail to see in the Louisiana Pur- 
chase, the Embargo, the War of 1812, the restoration of 
Hamilton's bank, and in the protective tariff the use of 
strong national powers. 

John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Daniel Webster 
gradually took up the idea of 
the nation using great power. 
They called themselves National 
Republicans and claimed to be 
true followers of Jefferson. 

The National Republicans 
first met in national convention 
in Baltimore and nominated 



their favorite, Henry Clay. He 
was badly defeated by Jackson 
in 1832. The other portion of 
Jefferson's party began to call 
themselves Democrats. They, 
too, held a national nominating 
convention and put up Jackson 
and Van Buren. 

The name Whig took the place of National Republican, 
and all sorts of men gathered under this historic name in 




HENRY CLAY 



226 ' THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 

Opposition to ' ' King Andrew. ' ' Clay was the party's most 
beloved leader. He was three times a candidate for presi- 
dent, but he could not win. Another leader was Webster, 
the man of greatest eloquence in his time, who died wanting 
to be president but was not even nominated. Calhoun, 
the deep thinker, though not a Whig, supported the 
opposition to Jackson for a time. But Calhoun could 
never "pull in party harness." 

359- Jackson believes the bank an enemy of the people. 
Jackson was fully convinced that the bank made the rich 
richer and the poor poorer. He therefore opposed its 
recharter. Henry Clay, the friend of the bank, made 
the granting of a new charter a question in the campaign 
of 1832. Jackson easily won the election and declared 
that by their votes the people had commanded him to 
destroy the bank. He took all United States money 
out of it, and it died before its old charter ran out.^^^ 

360. Pet banks and the panic of 1837. With the 
United States bank gone, state banks came flocking back. 
These banks seemed to be more democratic. Certain 
of them were called "pet banks" because the govern- 
ment favored them by putting its money in them. 
Jackson, it was said, favored their making it easy for the 
people to borrow money. These banks did this by 
putting out vast sums of "paper money," which were 
promises to pay when the bank had real money. 

Everybody was borrowing money to speculate in public 
lands. The government sold lands at $1.25 per acre. 
Speculators bought and sold again at a higher price. 
"The thing was easy." Towns, cities, and states were 
borrowing money. 

But the crisis soon came. The paper money of the 
banks was pouring into the United States treasury. 



WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 



227 



Much of it was not worth 50 cents on the dollar. Some- 
thing must be done. Jackson acted quickly. He sent 
forth his "Specie Circular" demanding that only gold 
and silver be paid to the government. Enough gold and 
silver could not be had. Banks, pet banks and all, went 
down. Business houses were ruined, and factories closed 
their doors. Canal and railroad building stopped, and 
thousands of laborers were thrown out of work. The 
panic of 1837 was the hardest the United States had seen. 

361. Van Buren president (1837-41). We have seen 
that Van Buren was a warm supporter of Jackson (§354), 
and he was made secretary of state. Van Buren stood 
faithfully by Jackson in all his " fights . ' ' Jackson resolved 
to make him president. He was elected, but had to bear 
the burden of blame for the 

suffering from the panic of 
1837. The people asked the 
government for help, but 
Van Buren refused it. 

362. The log cabin cam- 
paign (1840). The campaign 
of 1840 began in 1837, an- 
other three years' contest 
(§354). Its opening was 
more exciting than that of 
any Jackson campaign. Har- 
rison was the Whig candi- 
date. He, too, was a western 
hero. He had beaten the 
Indians and defeated the 
British on Canadian soil 

at the battle of the Thames. He was now the plain Ohio 
farmer with his latchstring always out to old soldiers. 




MARTIN VAN BUREN 



THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 




WILLIAM HENRY 



Van Buren was the "little aristocrat." He had always 
held office, lived in a "palace," ridden in a fine carriage; 

while the labor-er had been 
without work and the busi- 
ness man a bankrupt. Such 
demonstrations, processions, 
and barbecues! Never had 
so many great orators stirred 
the people. Clay and Web- 
ster were at their best. The 
Whigs aroused patriotic feel- 
ing by meetings on great 
battlefields. To Tippecanoe 
(§313) and to Bunker Hill 
(§195) thousands upon thou- 
sands came. 

Miniature log cabins with 
the latchstrings out, live raccoons sporting over the roofs, 
and barrels of hard cider with farmers drinking were 
carried on large wagons. Great balls, drawn by horses, 
were rolling on to show the tide of victory sweeping by ; 
catchy songs of "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" added 
interest and aroused enthusiasm. The Democrats could 
not check the tide of victory. It swept Harrison into 
office by over 140,000 majority of the people's vote, and 
with nearly four times as many electoral votes as Van 
Buren. 

363. The Significance of the Whig victory. The West 
had won again. The common man was taking a far 
deeper interest in national life. Henry Clay now talked 
like Jackson ; he said that the people had commanded the 
Whigs to kill certain Democratic measures. But Harrison 
died suddenly after only a few weeks in office. John Tyler 



WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 229 

became president (Art. II, "§1, ^6). He quarreled with 
the Whig leaders and the whole Whig program failed. 

364. Old World habits die hard. Events in the East 
showed that the democratic movement was at work 
throwing off Old World notions. In Rhode Island the 
people had outgrown their old charter (^St,) and called 
for one giving to all men the right to vote. After Dorr's 
rebellion this new privilege was granted. 

Another old custom went down. The farmers on the 
patroons' estates, tired of paying quitrents (§§86, 118), 
resisted and were granted the right to buy the farms from 
the owners. It took over 200 years to get rid of this 
custom. Old usages die hard. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 17-92; 
Elson, Side Lights on American History, chaps, viii-x; Hart, Formation 
of the Union, 233-262; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 452-483, 499-501; 
Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 327-383; McMaster, History of the 
People of the United States, V, chap, liii; VI, chaps. Hv, Ixv; Bassett, 
Short History, 345-349, 382-426; Morse, John Quincy Adams ("Amer- 
ican Statesmen Series"), 164-174; Schurz, Life of Henry Clay, I, 
221-235; II, 113-127, 171-197; Coman, Industrial History. 

References for pupils: Hart, Source Book, 226-240; Hart, Patriots 
and Statesmen, III, 192-317; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 225-233; Frost, 
Mill Boy of the Slashes; Wright, Children's Stories of American Prog- 
ress, 179-194; Hart, Source Reader, II, 99-104; Great Epochs in Ameri- 
can History, V, 133-157, 180-191. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Imagine a company of boys and girls on the National Road. 
Write up an account of the journey. 2. Go with Governor De Witt 
Clinton on the canal from Buffalo to New York. Write a sketch of 
the trip. 3. Hold an oral debate on Jackson and Clay as leaders of 
the parties in 1832. 4. Write a sketch of the campaign of 1840 for 
Greeley's Log Cabin Whig paper. 



CHAPTER XV 
SOCIAL CHANGES 

CHANGES IN THE MANNER OF LIVING 

365. Growth of^the nation. In 1790 no one dreamed 
of a nation that in fifty years would have increased its 
area over three times and the number of its people nearly 
eight times. In twenty years more we had admitted to 
the Union two states and one territory on the Pacific 
(i860). Then we boasted of over 31,000,000 people in 
thirty-two states and nine territories. Thirty years 
before we had numbered but 13,000,000 people. In 
1790 the North was very little ahead in the race, but in 
i860 she had forged ahead by mighty leaps, counting 
19,000,000 people to 12,000,000 in the South. 

The cities showed a still greater difference : New York 
had jumped from 240,000 (1830) to over 800,000 (i860); 
Philadelphia from 70,000 in 1800 to over 565,000 in i860; 
Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Chicago were running neck 
and neck for first place, with over 100,000 each. Ten 
cities had a population ranging from nearly 100,000 to 
over 500,000 each. Only three were in the South, and 
only one joined the Confederacy. This difference in 
favor of the North was largely due to immigration. In 
1830 only one person in fourteen lived in the city; in i860 
about one in six. In this respect the South had a great 
advantage: the number of her people Hving in the city 
was very small. 

366. European immigration and its effects. The vast 
majority of our people at the close of the Revolution spoke 
the English language. Before 1820 the large majority 

230 



CHANGES IN THE MANNER OF LIVING 231 

joining the two streams to the West were children of this 
old English-speaking stock. 

To Europeans, America had always been a land of prom- 
ise. In the year 1 830 twice as many migrated to America 
as in 1820. During the next ten years 500,000 came. 
Between 1850 and i860 in one year 400,000 reached this 
country. 133 Thousands came from Germany to escape 
punishment by the government for taking part in the 
rebellion to make Germany free (1848). '34 

Ireland suffered from a potato famine. Nearly 
1,000,000 people perished in spite of help sent from 
other countries. Thousands upon thousands of the Irish 
sought homes in America. '^^ 

367. Where the immigrants went and why. Why did 
they pour into the North by millions? Because in the 
cities and in the country they could find work. There 
were many occupations, but the South had only a few. 

Germans generally went to the frontier states of Mich- 
igan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Missouri. But the Irish 
loved the cities with their social attractions. 

368. Home life and pastimes on the frontier (1840-60). 
Many changes had come into the home life and pastimes 
on the frontier, owing largely to the progress of the people 
themselves, but partly owing to the inflow of foreigners. 
The Germans emphasized Christmas with small trees 
burdened with lights and gifts. They also placed great 
emphasis on music and organized bands which played in 
the country schoolhouses. 

Among English people the frontier pastimes were very 
like those of old colony days (§123). New ones since 
that time were the neighborhood spelHng bees and the 
neighborhood debates. When the people of two neigh- 
borhoods met to decide which should win, no place was 



232 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



large enough 
miles around. 




FRONTIER CAMP MEETING 



to hold those who came from miles and 
Likewise, the frontier camp meeting was 
. ^. ^ made an occasion 

for young people 
to meet and to 
enjoy themselves. 
369. Home life 
and pastimes in 
the older states. 
There had been 
greater changes 
in the home life 
and pastimes of 
the people of the 
older communities than in those of the frontiersmen. The 
mine, the mill, and the factory were the great causes. 
Working families did not do their manufacturing at home 
(§148). They had to go to some great factory. This 
separated children from their parents. If the parents were 
poor or if they were more interested in wages than in the 
education of their children, the young folks also had to 
work long hours in the factory. Sometimes they worked 
in rooms dangerous to their health. With the members 
of families separated, the children grew up unused to the 
careful oversight and the helpful advice of parents. 

Sometimes, when the parents could afford it, the older 
children cared for the younger. These conditions did not 
favor happy and healthful pastimes, such as were enjoyed 
by the better classes in the community. The children 
of factory people, except on Sunday or on a hoKday, 
did not enjoy games to the full, such as rowing, swim- 
ming, skating, coasting, wrestling, running, jumping 
and the various games of ball. These forms of exercise, 



PINAL STRUGGLE FOR BALANCE OP POWER 233 

were all fine tests of the muscle of the boys and girls who 
could take part in them. 

THE FINAL STRUGGLE TO KEEP THE BALANCE OF POWER . 

370. Arkansas (1836) and Michigan (1837). Arkansas 
was first claimed by Spain. The French settled it. It 
went to Spain (1763) and back to France under Napoleon' 
The Louisiana Purchase gave it to the United States. 
Arkansas Territory, including Indian Territory, was set 
up in 1818. Arkansas was admitted to the Union in 1836, 
which she left in 1861. 

Michigan, the Wolverine state, resounded first to the 
Indian war cry. Then came the French missionary and 
fur trader. Father Marquette was one of its early heroes. 
He founded Sault Ste. Marie (1668). Detroit was settled 
by the French (1701). The treaty of 1763 gave Michigan 
to England, but it became the scene of Pontiac's struggles 
for his hunting grounds. Michigan became a part of the 
United States in 1783 and came under the famous Or- 
dinance of 1787. During the War of 181 2 Michigan was 
the scene of stirring events. What Hull lost Harrison won 
back. The University of Michigan was founded in 1837. 
Senator Lewis Cass was among the state's most famous 
men in an early day. Detroit, the most celebrated auto- 
mobile city in the world, ranks fourth in size in the United 
States. 

371. Florida (1845) and Texas (1845). Florida was a 
favorite region for early Spanish explorations. De Leon 
looked for the fountain of youth, and De Soto for gold. 
The history of Florida is set forth in events already noted 
(§22, 60, 347). Of late years it has become famous as a 
winter resort. 

Texas was visited by La Salle while he was seeking the 
mouth of the Mississippi (§163). The Spaniards claimed 



234 SOCIAL CHANGES 

this region, and the United States surrendered it in 
exchange for Florida. The history of Texas is fully set 
forth elsewhere in this book (§§411, 412). 

372. Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848). The balance 
in the Senate, upset by the admission of Florida and 
Texas, was restored by the entrance into the Union of 
Iowa and Wisconsin. 

Iowa, the Hawkeye state, was the home of the Sioux 
Indians, a great warlike tribe. The Spanish claimed the 
region, and the French did, likewise. It was given to 
Spain (1763) and returned to France to satisfy Napoleon. 
He sold Louisiana.to Jefferson, and Iowa became a part of 
United States territory (1803). Dubuque had already 
been settled (1788). First a part of Louisiana and of 
several other states, Iowa was set off in 1838 as a territory.. 
Immigration flowed in, and the Sioux Indians tried to put 
a stop to it by the massacre at Spirit Lake (1857). Popu- 
lation grew from 19,000 (1850) to 674,000 in i860— a 
tremendous increase. Kirk wood was Iowa's great war 
governor. Senator Allison served Iowa with distinction 
in the Senate, 1 873-1 908. 

Wisconsin, the Badger state, was a favorite region of 
the red man. Here, too, the French fur trader gathered 
vast numbers of pelts, and the missionary early set up 
his altar. Wisconsin goes back to Old Dominion days 
according to the Virginia charter (1609). Virginia turned 
her over, with her sister states, to the Union (1784), and 
she became a part of the Old Northwest (§248). In the 
War of 1 81 2 Canadians and Indians captured Prairie du 
Chien. After the Black Hawk War a large number of 
people came into this region from the eastern states. In 
1836 Wisconsin was made into a territory, but included 
Minnesota, Iowa, and part of the Dakotas. From 1840 



FINAL STRUGGLE FOR BALANCE OF POWER 235 

to i860 Scandinavians and Germans poured in, in large 
numbers. Anti-slavery sentiment was strong and led 
the state supreme court to declare the Fugitive Slave 
Law unconstitutional. In no other state have so many 
German farmers settled. 

373. California (1850), Minnesota (1858), and Oregon 
(1859). These three states broke forever the balance of 
power in the Senate. 

California, the second largest state in the Union, is 
known as the "Golden state." Spaniards from Mexico 
came into this region, built their missions, converted the 
Indians, and taught them useful trades. California fell 
to the United States as a result of the Mexican War 
(1848). The discovery of gold (1848) drew thousands to 
this region and made a state organization necessary. 
California, therefore, had no territorial government 
(§248). The South hoped to capture the southern part 
of the state by extending the line 36° 30' to the Pacific. 
The population grew from 92,000 in 1850 to 379,000 in 
i860. People soon turned their attention to agriculture 
and fruit raising and found more wealth than in mining. 
In southern California lie the Imperial Valley, one of the 
richest in the world, and Death Valley, a salty, sandy 
region below sea level. Two of the most famous play- 
grounds of the United States are the Yosemite and Sequoia 
parks. Both are national reservations for the people. 

Minnesota, the Gopher state, ran the round of owner- 
ship by the Indians, French, Spanish, French again, and 
finally by the United States. Duluth, a Frenchman, built 
a fort at Pigeon River (1678) and in 1680 Hennepin dis- 
covered the Falls of St. Anthony. Pike saw this region 
in 1805 (§302). Fort St. Anthony was built in 1819, and 
in 1^23 the first steamboat came to the Falls. St. Paul 



236 SOCIAL CHANGES 

had its beginnings in 1841 in the building of a chapel. 
The territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, extend- 
ing west to the Missouri River. Minneapolis sprang into 
existence in 1855. Little Crow led his braves in trying to 
check the incoming tide of settlers and massacred 800 
whites. Ramsey was Minnesota's war governor and had 
the honor of offering Lincoln the first troops in the war. 
The Germans and Scandinavians migrated to Minnesota 
in large numbers. From 1850 to i860 the number of her 
people grew from 6,000 to over 172,000. 

"The Oregon Country" was a vast stretch of region 
north of California, west of the Rockies, and extending 
north to Alaska. The Spanish, French, English, the 
Russians, and the Americans claimed this country. Much 
of Oregon's history is told in other places (§§301, 414-18). 
The settlers met (1843), established territorial machinery, 
and managed the government until the United States 
organized a regular territory (1848). It included much 
of Idaho and all of Washington. The people again met, 
framed a constitution, and were admitted to the Union 
(1851). Oregon's greatest growth in population was 
between 1900 and 1910, gaining nearly 260,000 people. 
Portland, the chief city of Oregon, celebrates annually 
the "Feast of Roses." It is called the Rose City. 

374. Mormon migration. Joseph Smith organized the 
Mormon church, or the Church of the Latter Day Saints, 
(1830). He proclaimed to the world that he had received 
revelations from God. A little later the Mormons 
moved from New York to Ohio and then to Missouri. 
Afterward they moved to Illinois (1839). Their religious 
beliefs roused the hatred of their neighbors. Harsh 
treatment followed, and Joseph Smith was shot. 

The Mormons, led by Brigham Young, began a long. 



EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 237 

hard journey to the westward. They toiled across des- 
erts, over the Rocky Mountains, and on until they finally 
reached the Great Salt Lake (1847). Here they began 
to plant towns and lay out farms. They were pioneers 
in the work of irrigation in this country. Soon this 
region began to blossom as the rose. 

EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 

375. Progress in the common schools. We saw the 

struggle of the pioneer and his children for an education. 
During the first half of the nineteenth century, especially 
after 1830, great progress had been made. In nearly 
every northern state, systems of common schools had 
been established. At first this meant in the country only 
a few months of school in log schoolhouses, poorly lighted 
and heated, and with poor helps for teacher and pupil. 
The teacher was not required to know much. His prepa- 
ration covered little more than the requirements of the 
school he taught. Even this sort of school marked a 
great advance over the schools of earlier times. 

In the cities changes were greater. In them the schools 
were graded and had a superintendent if the city was large 
and progressive enough, and if the city could spare the 
money. Textbooks in reading and other subjects had 
long been in use. In many schools the teacher was 
prized if he could set fairly correct copies in a bold 
hand for the children. There are numbers of people 
yet living who used to "sing their geography lessons." 

376. The academy and the high school. The academy 
arose before the Revolution. It was a great improvement 
over the old Latin school (§125). It put more emphasis 
on EngHsh studies. After the Revolution academies 
spread rapidly over the country, because they were more 



238 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



democratic than the Latin schools. Still they were not 
supported by taxes. 

To meet the rising tide of democracy a new school 
sprang into existence about 1820. The high school, as 
it came to be called, was supported by taxes and con- 
trolled by the people. It was intended to fit the children 
of rich and poor alike for the daily work of life. 

We should expect the high school to spread rapidly 
westward. The constitution of Indiana (18 16) laid the 
foundation for a complete system of education extending 
from the common schools through the university. But 
nothing was done in this or any other western state for 
a long time. 

377. Men working for better schools. Among those 
working for better schools Horace Mann of Massachu- 
setts holds high rank. He appealed to the people through 
the newspapers and through 
pamphlets. He went to the 
people, met them in public 
meetings, and reasoned with 
them. He told them that they 
must grant more money for the 
support of schools and for better 
pay for teachers. He urged 
teachers to become better fitted 
to do their work. He saw the 
first normal school established 
in the United States in 1839. 
Henry Barnard, ^^"^ of New 
England, worked in much the 
same way. In addition to 
he published a Journal of Education, 
for teachers in the United States. 




HORACE MANN 



his other work, 
the first paper 



EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 239 

378. The education of woman. In colonial times, 
boys and girls went to separate schools. One of our 



THr uNivr ksi 1 \ or \ 



democratic changes was to throw the common schools 
open to girls. The mingling of boys and girls in high 
schools was not common. Some great cities to lead the 
way in this respect were Providence, Philadelphia, Cleve- 
land, Chicago, and Indianapolis. 

In the field of higher education woman was slowly 
gaining. As early as 18 14 the Albany Female Academy 
was established. Emma Willard founded the Troy 
Female Academy (182 1), and Mary Lyon followed with 
Mount Holyoke Female Academy (1837), ^ truly demo- 
cratic school. It required each student to reduce the 
cost of her education by spending part of her time in 
doing household work.^" The country was surprised 
anew when New Orleans College threw its doors open 
to women on the same terms as to men (1833). Antioch 
College soon followed suit, for Horace Mann was its 
president. 

379. The growth of university education. The colonial 
colleges generally belonged to some religious denomina- 
tion. After the Revolution the Presbyterians, Metho- 
dists, and Baptists added colleges. But a change in 
university education came in the founding of state uni- 



240 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



versities in the new states as well as in some of the older 
ones. Washington was the advocate of a national uni- 
versity, and left an estate to found one. Jefferson, in 
his last days, saw his dream come true in the University 
of Virginia (1825). The University of Michigan, one of 
the largest of the state schools, was founded in 1837. 
The University of North Carolina is the oldest state 
university (1795). 

THE FIRST SIGNS OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE 

380. The era stirs men to write. Americans before 
the Revolution had done some writing (§270), but now 
for the first time they took American subjects. They 
were stirred by the new life to write. Washington Irving 
(i 783-1859) attracted attention by his quaint fun in 
Knickerbocker s History of New York, by his interesting 
stories in the Sketch Book, and by his charming 
Life of Christopher Columbus. 
James Fenimore Cooper 
(i 789-1851) in his Spy and in 
other novels was disproving 
Europe's opinion that we had 
no subjects fit for writers. 
Hawthorne (1804-64) kept up 
the reputation of American 
stories by his Twice-Told Tales , 
by the House of Seven Gables, 
and by the Scarlet Letter. 
. 381. A group of beloved 
poets. William Cullen Bryant 
( 1 794-1 878) astonished the 
country by writing " Thanatopsis " at the age of seventeen. 
His booklet of poems (182 1) contained a lesson of faith in 




JAMES FENIMORE COOPER 



BEGINNING OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE 



241 



the lines "To a Waterfowl." Ralph Waldo Emerson 
(1803-82), although a philosopher, wrote many thought- 
ful poems. In the days of 
stress and strain there 
were born (1807) two of 
our older poets most be- 
loved by school children, 
Henry Wadsworth Long- 
fellow and John Greenleaf 
Whittier. Longfellow 
while yet a student at 
Harvard wrote that beauti- 
ful poem the ' ' Hymn to the 
Moravian Nuns," celebrat- 
ing the gift of a banner to 
Pulaski (§208) by the nuns 
of Bethlehem, Pennsyl- 
vania. Whittier, a farmer 
and a Quaker, has been called the poet of freedom 
because he wrote so much against slavery. When but 
eighteen years of age he published "The Exiles' Depart- 
ure." Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-94) gave to the world 
many poems as well as prose works of high merit. Among 
his earliest poems was "Old Ironsides," which saved the 
ship "Constitution" (§314) from being destroyed (1830). 
James Russell Lowell (18 19-91), one of America's greatest 
literary men, dipped his pen in gall and wrote the Biglow 
Papers. His poetry touched a high plane. Edgar Allen 
Poe (1809-49), whose best known poem is "The Raven," 
but whose strange prose sketches are almost as note- 
worthy, spent most of his short life in the South. 

382. Newspapers and magazines. The oldest news- 
paper stiU alive in the United States is the New Hampshire 




NR\ W LONGFELLOW 



242 > wSOCIAL CHANGES 

Gazette (1756). The rapid growth of city population 
after the War of 181 2 gave newspapers thousands of 
readers. The daily papers were so full of paying adver- 
tisements that their price was reduced. The New York 
Sun was the first to sell at a penny (1833). In 184 1 the 
New York Tribune came into being. For over a quarter 
of a century it was the greatest newspaper in America. 

The spread of popular education made it easy for every- 
body to enjoy reading of all sorts. Magazines had been 
published before the Revolution. One of the greatest of 
them, the North American Review, was first published 
in 181 5. Then rapidly followed Harper s, the Atlantic, 
and the Southern Literary Messenger. The Ladies' Maga- 
zine appeared in 1827. 

In the latter part of this period the lyceum sprang into 
existence. It did much to bring before the people some 
of the most forceful and eloquent speakers of that time. 

AN ERA OF MORAL REFORM 

383. The early settlers religious. Those who moved 
across the Allegheny Mountains from the East were 
church-going people. They felt the need of churches in 
the new communities. 

Among the more aggressive denominations were the 
Methodists. They sent forth preachers called "circuit 
riders." These rode horseback, carrying a pair of saddle- 
bags containing a few books and sometimes food. It 
often took the circuit rider a month to make one trip in 
his district. He preached, comforted the sick, married 
the young, and buried the dead. 

A new thing among the scattered settlements of the 
frontier was the camp meeting. It has since spread to 
all parts of the country under one name or another. 



AN ERA OF MORAL REFORM 243 

Families traveled to it in wagons, on horseback, and afoot. 
They carried food and tents for sleeping. Great crowds 
gathered to hear the preacher, often some man of wide 
reputation. It was a time of strong feeHng. Preachers 
did not stop short of plain speaking about the sins of 
the people and the dangers of everlasting punishment. 

Cart Wright, famous throughout the West for melting 
an audience to tears and stirring it up until some had 
the " jerks, "^''^ was a great figure at these camp meetings. 
The meetings often continued for more than a week. 
They were made a place for meeting friends. Sometimes 
politicians came around to shake hands and to "visit 
with the people." 

384. New church denominations. Many new denomi- 
nations came in with the new tide of European immigra- 
tion- after the Napoleonic wars. In the Northwest 
mainly were the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Ger- 
man Protestants. Roman Catholics now began to in- 
crease rapidly as a result of European migration. 

Many of the old denominations spHt because one part 
began to emphasize some point of difference. On the 
question of slavery, between 1840 and 1850, a number 
split into a northern and a southern church. 

385. The rise of kindlier feelings. Brandings and 
public whippings had about gone out of fashion (§135). 
Pennsylvania kept the lead given by her founder (§135)." 
She had improved her jails, separating the old from the 
young. These ideas were slowly spreading to other 
states. There was much room for improvement in the 
conditions of jails and in the treatment of criminals. 

Thanks to the work of Dorothea Dix, a brighter 
day was dawning for the insane. She claimed it to be 
the duty of the state to take care of these unfortunates 



244 SOCIAL. CHANGES 

instead of leaving them to private persons or to com- 
munities. 

A great change came when it was decided to put 
nobody in prison for debt. How long it takes to get rid 
of old ideas and customs! (§§58, 273.) 

386. Labor conditions. The improvement of labor 
conditions by making the shop a better place for work, 
by having shorter working hours, and by raising wages 
were all tried during this period. Not much was gained, 
because the employer felt that his business was nobody's 
affair but his own. Outside of the great mines and fac- 
tories laborers were not so badly off. There was plenty 
of w^ork in the country, except during the panic of 1837, 
and the cost of living was very low. 

Men working on canals or railroads, as laborers on 
boats, or as workmen on new roads found a growing 
demand for more workers. The farmer and his hands 
labored from sunrise to sunset, and there was little chance 
to lessen this burden. Labor unions began in a small way 
after the Revolution. The mechanics first united in 1827, 
and in 1837 an attempt was made to form a national 
organization. These unions favored popular education 
and tried to prevent child labor. But for the most part 
they went into" politics and accomplished very little. 

387. Woman suffrage. We have seen our new democ- 
racy call for woman's rights (§§239, 378). Woman's field 
of work did not extend much beyond the home. Why 
should she be kept out of all professions except teaching, 
and why should there not be better treatment of women 
teachers? They finally concluded that all rights would 
come to woman when she had the privilege of voting. 
The first convention for woman's rights was held in 
Seneca Falls, New York (1848). 



THE GROWTH OP INDUSTRY 245 

388. Other organizations for moral changes. Strong 
drink was common at social gatherings in this period, 
even ministers of the gospel sometimes drinking without 
fear of being blamed. To combat this evil the Washing- 
tonians sprang into existence. Thousands of men and 
women joined the movement and pledged themselves to 
moderate drinking. This new reform was helped by the 
.work of Father Matthew among the Roman Catholics, 
and among the Protestants by the efforts of the Good 
Templar societies. 

THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 

389. The farmer and the new movements. When 
mighty reforms are sweeping the country, the farmer is 
gradually influenced by them. He is very conservative, 
because to mingle with his fellows he must stop his work 
and go where they are. But he was answering more 
promptly to the great inventions which made it easy to 
do things. Inventions to take care of wheat, grass, and 
corn brought about many changes important to him. 

390. The leading 
machines on the farms. 
In this great period of 
new things, Cyrus H. 
McCormick ^^^ came with 
his reaper and mower 
(183 1). How quickly 
the farmer cut his wheat 
or mowed his meadow! 
He could now do more ' « * a ' 
work with less help and cutting crun with the sickle 

do it more easily. The next year he sowed more wheat 
than ever. The mower, drawn by two horses, took the 




246 



SOCIAL CHANGES 



place of the scythe; and a "horse rake" took the place 
of the hand rake. The next year the farmer had larger 











^^^-, 



iMA 






THE ORIGINAL MCCORMICK. HARVl.slER 



meadows. The "separator" came; it improved the old 
thresher and added a "straw stacker" to carry the 
straw up into the loft of the barn or upon a straw stack. 

Other inventions that added to the charm of Hfe on the 
farm were improvements in the "breaking" plow for 
turning the fui-rows in the field. This plow was of steel, 
enabling it to run deeper and smoother. 

The corn drill and the wheat drill also came to lighten 
labor and to make it easier to sow greater quantities of 
grain, and thus to make more work for the other machines. 

In the cotton-raising section of the South not many 
new machines were needed. Improvements in the cotton 
gin had been made (§278). The planter could now raise 
as much cotton as the markets in Europe and America 
needed, and he could sell no more. 



THE GROWTH OP INDUSTRY 



247 



391. Increase in manufactures (1820-60). We have 
already seen factories beginning to increase rapidly in 
numbers (§275). The great European migration provided 
plenty of labor. In the older states steam began to take 
the place of water. Whether or not a town was on a large 
stream it could have a factory. The tariff gave a big 
start to manufacturing. Then Clay's compromise tariff 
(1833-43) came, but the mills did not close again even 
when the low tariff of 1846 was passed by Congress. 
They made good in spite of European trade. 

The manufacture of iron goods was now greatly 
improved. It was discovered that hard coal instead 
of charcoal could be used to melt iron ore, and thus pig 
iron was made much cheaper. Cheap pig iron gave the 
rolling mills plenty of work to do. From their work came 
better and cheaper tools of all kinds — cheaper spinning 
machines, cheaper looms, and cheaper engines. 



'^JlfA^.i 




MAKING STEEL PLATES AT PITTSBURGH 



392. Beginning of woman's freedom from drudgery. 

Inventions for the household did not keep pace with 
inventions in other lines. But the time of woman's 



248 



vSOCIAL CHANGES 




freedom was coming. The invention of the cook stove 
promised to give her much rehef . 

Many men had puzzled their brains over the invention 
of a sewing machine. Finally Elias Howe after years of 
poverty and toil reached success. 1*" He was granted a 
patent in 1846. 

Matches came to us from Europe 
and have finally taken the place of 
striking fire by the use of a flint 
or by carrying coals from the 
neighbors. 

To the women of the household 
fell the lot of making the tallow 
candles. This was hard work, 
since the tallow came when a cow 
or an ox was killed for meat. 
What a blessing to everybody were the lamps! 

393. Other inventions, (i) One of the most useful of 
all inventions was the Hoe rotary printing press. This 
explains why the great newspapers were turned out at 
such small cost (§382). (2) Before this time pictures 
had to be carved on wooden or metal plates. This was 
very slow work. But in 1839 a Frenchman succeeded in 
getting a picture by turning sunlight on a copper plate 
covered with a film of silver. From his name these 
pictures were called "daguerreotypes." Following this 
step, rapid strides have been made until today we have 
the "movie films" and pi-ctures taken from airplanes. 
(3) An invention which has brought about a wonderful 
change in things was Goodyear' s discovery of the use of 
sulphur in the manufacture of rubber. This made it 
possible to produce "rubber goods" and scores of other 
articles. (4) How people who came under the surgeon's 



THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 



249 



knife must have thanked their stars for the discovery of 
"ether." If ether is taken into the lungs, a person can 
have an operation performed without feeHng it. 

394. Coal and iron mines. Soft coal has been found in 
almost all of the states from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. 




THE COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES 



In this period anthracite or hard coal came into use. 
By 1848 ten canals and twenty-five railroads were carry- 
ing coal and iron away from places where nature had 
stored them. Its coal and iron have made Pennsylvania 
the second state in population, and Pittsburgh the center 
of this trade. 

395. Morse invents the telegraph (1844). The ends 
of the earth were now brought together by the invention 
of the "magnetic telegraph." Samuel F. B. Morse ^^^ is 
the man to whom most honor is due for this discovery, 
although we must not forget Alfred Vail, whose skill and 
shop were always open to Morse. After years of poverty 
Morse received from Congress $30,000 (1843) to build a 



250 



SOCIAL CHANGES 




line from Washington to Baltimore. This was completed 
in time to announce the nomination of James K. Polk 
for president. Morse lived to see 
his invention widely adopted and 
to receive medals struck in his 
honor by European countries. 

396. The Atlantic cable joins 
Europe and America. Com- 
modore Maury had studied the 
bottom, of the Atlantic. He sug- 
gested to Cyrus W. Field, a gener- 
ous New Yorker, the idea of join- 
ing the Old World to the New by 
Morse's invention. By the aid of 
generous friends in America and 
England, and assisted by Con- 
gress, the cable began to uncoil in August, 1857. Three 
hundred miles out, the line snapped. It cost $500,000 to 
mend it. Again it broke. Field would not give up. 

Over the cable in 1858 Queen Victoria and President 
Buchanan exchanged greetings. While New York City 
was giving the conqueror of the Atlantic a great banquet, 
the cable parted once more. But Field would not sur- 
render. The cable was completed, and Europe and 
America were tied together for better or for worse 
(1866). 

397. The rapid growth of railroads (1840-60). Road 
and canal building was forging ahead when the panic of 
1837 struck the country. Railroads, however, by giving 
quicker service, gained first place after the panic. At 
first they were built in short stretches. A person going 
from Albany to Buffalo was compelled to change cars 
several times and had to buy a ticket on each train. 



THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 



251 



Soon a traveler could go from Boston to Buffalo (1842), 
but it was not until 1852 that one could reach Chicago by 
rail. The year 1857 stands out in railroad history, for 
in that year Chicago and St. Louis were joined by rail, 
and the Baltimore and Ohio road reached the latter 
city. By i860 most of the larger cities in the North 
had been tied together by bands of iron. Unfortunately 
only a few lines, such as the Illinois Central, ran from 




There was also a railway of twenty 
two miles between Sacramento anc 
Folsom City, California. 



TIIi; RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES IN I86O 

North to South, promoting an exchange of friendly feelings. 
In. this period the United States, unlike some European 



2 52 SOCIAL CHANGES 

governments, did not own any railroads. It did begin 
the custom of granting aid to build certain lines. Some 
of the states aided the building of railroads, and some 
built them entirely. But in the course of time all rail- 
roads were owned by private persons. 

398. Cheaper postage. The first expressman. Eng- 
land had long since set the example of cheap postage (1839). 
To send a single-page letter in the United States cost from 
6 to 25 cents, according to distance. In 185 1 Congress 
estabHshed the 3 cent rate for letters. But no parcel post 
was established then, and an enterprising young man, 
William F. Hamden, began to carry packages between 
Boston and New York. The example set by Hamden led to 
the formation of the different express companies of America. 

399. Steamships. The increase and improvement in 
steamboats on American rivers showed men a quicker 
way to cross the ocean. Already the "Savannah" had 
made the trip using both sails and steam (18 19). Men 
were working hard to improve the engines when coal 
was introduced as a fuel. By this means the "Sirius" 

and the "Great 
Western" both 
crossed the ocean 
without the aid of 
sails (1837). By 
1847 the trip was 
reduced to eleven 
: - days. When 
gold was dis- 

TIIE "SAVAXNAIl" 

covered m Cali- 
fornia, steamships carried people to Panama. Others 
carried them from the western coast of the Isthmus to 
California. Some ships went by the Straits of Magellan. 




THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 253 

400. Home and foreign trade (1830-50). The building 
of canals increased trade on the Great Lakes. There was 
six times as much trade in 1830 as in 1820. By 1840 this 
trade had grown to three times the amount of 1830. In 
185 1 Ohio sent 12,000,000 bushels of wheat to the East. 

The "clipper" ship, an American invention, gave 
America first place as a rapid carrier of trade. The 
European wars again put a great trade in American 
hands. Our clippers traded even with China and India. 

In the year 1854 Commodore Matthew C. Perry brought 
us into friendly relations with Japan. The Japanese 
had never before admitted foreigners, but after Perry 
and his warships had visited Japan, the United States 
made treaties of friendship and trade with that country.. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wright, Industrial Evolution of the 
United States, 132-152; Andrews, History of the United States, II, 
66-74; Ingle, Southern Side Lights, 10-20, 47-66, 176-195, 298-399; 
Bogart, Economic History, chaps, xiii, xv, xvi, xviii, xxvi; Morse, 
Causes and Effects in American History, chap, xii; McMaster, People 
of the United States, VIII, chap. Ixxxvii; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 
161-573; Moore, Industrial History, 299-316, 361-362, 392-422, 
448-468. 

References for pupils : Mace, Stories of Heroism, 22,$-^$^ (Fulton, 
Morse, Field, and Edison); Hart, Source Reader, II, 334-370; Great 
Epochs in American History, VII, 36-47; Sparks, Expansion of the 
American People, chap, xxiv; Faris, Real Stories from Our History, 
chaps, xlii-xliii. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Write a story about the Irish and German immigrants in 1850. 
2. Three boys start for California to dig gold. Each takes a different 
route and writes back to his friends. 3. Attend a country debate in 
i860. Write about the subject debated and the argvunents used. 
4. A girl in i860 writes a story of woman's efforts to get into men's 
colleges, into business, and into teaching. 5. Write a brief story of 
Dorothea Dix. 6. You are a reporter. Write about the banquet 
given Cyrus W. Field. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 

ECONOMIC CONTRASTS 

401. Where differences between North and South 
came from. Behind all the difficulty between North and 
South lay the difference in soil and climate. The South 
raised tobacco, rice, and cotton, but did not manufacture 
much. From colonial times the South had sold part of 
its crops to Europe. But the protective tariff made the 
South pay a higher price for goods bought abroad. 

The tariff had made the North a manufacturing section. 
Hence it had to have cotton for its mills. The South 
wanted to buy goods made in Europe. Hence, it opposed 
the American tariff. 

402. Opposition to the tariff. In the early days of the 
protective tariff many men in the South thought that they 







^^E»- 



NORTHERN INDUSTRY 




would build mills and factories and manufacture the 
cotton they raised (§336). They saw their mistake, and 
most of them opposed the tariffs of 1824 and 1828.^*2 gy 



254 



ECONOMIC CONTRASTS 



255 




SOUTHERN INDUSTRY 



1828' the majority of the northern congressmen, including 

Webster, favored the tariff (§336). The battle against 

the protective tariff began 

in earnest when Calhoun, 

then vice-president, took 

strong ground against it 

in a long letter sent to 

South CaroHna. He took 

the position that a state 

might nullify a law of 

Congress (§294.) 

403. The Webster- 
Hayne debate (1830). 
Senator Hayne of South 
Carolina made a brilliant 
defense of the right of a state to nullify an act of 
Congress. He attacked New England in this speech, and 
Daniel Webster felt called upon to- reply. On that 
occasion the Senate was crowded ; standing room was not 
to be had on the floor or in the galleries. People had 
come from distant cities and ' ' grave senators were lost in 
the crowd of gay ladies." 

How grand was the scene when Webster arose! His 
fine figure, massive head, and large, deep-set eyes attracted 
attention the moment he began to speak. He spoke for 
hours, linking arguments into a chain that could not be 
broken. He declared that no state had ever had the right 
to nullify the laws of Congress. Then with deep feeling 
he described the glories of a strong and lasting union, 
closing with the immortal words; "Liberty and Union, 
now and forever, one and inseparable." Americans have 
come to accept Webster's point of view. 



256 THE QUESTION OP SLAVERY 

404. The tariff nullified by South Carolina (1832). 

The battle against the tariff went on. The nullifiers tried 
to. win Jackson to their side. But at Jefferson's birthday 
dinner he threw a bombshell into their midst by offering 
the toast : ' ' The Federal Union : It must be preserved. ' ' 
Nevertheless vSouth Carolina called a convention which 
declared the tariff "null and void," and forbade the 
United States revenue officers to collect it in her ports. 
This convention declared that if force was used, South 
Carolina would leave the Union. Jackson was angry. 
He sent forth a proclamation denying, as Webster had 
done, the right of a state to nulhfy a law or to leave the 
Union. He had ordered General Scott to Charleston 
harbor. He also sent war vessels there, declaring the 
United States laws should be enforced without fear or favor. 

405. The "Force Bill" and the compromise (1833). 
Union men everywhere praised Jackson for his stand. 
He now called on Congress to grant him the right to use 
the army and the navy if need be. Clay at once intro- 
duced his compromise to cut down the tariff, little by 
little, for ten years. Both bills passed Congress the same 
day.^^^ This was a happy settlement, for no man can tell 
what the result might have been had South Carolina 
resisted or seceded. 

BEGINNING TO AGITATE OVER SLAVERY 

406. What slavery was like. Slavery has been touched 
on frequently (§§41, m, 252, 278, 345), but now it begins 
to divide our people and calls for closer study. The slaves 
were bought and sold like other property. Hence slaves 
did not have very much ambition to learn to read or to 
improve their condition. A mistress sometimes taught 
them to read, and certain of the faithful negroes were 
permitted to preach to them. 



BEGINNING TO AGITATE OVER SLAVERY 



2S7 



There was little home life among them. Their houses 
were small and poorly kept. There was constant danger 
that father or mother, son or sister, might be sold to 
planters far away. 

The slaves, as a rule, were kindly treated, especially 
the household and the body servants. The master valued 
highly such slaves as he could trust. The "mammies" 
who cared for the young white children were greatly 
beloved by them. 

407. The rise of the Abolitionists. After the cotton 
gin came into use (§278), opposition to slavery, even in 
the North, seemed to die down. About 1830 people in 
Europe and America began new movements for bettering 
the conditions of men. Among these people were the 
AboHtionists, who demanded that all slaves should imme- 
diately be set free. 

The Abolitionists were radi- 
cals, and soon there was a split 
among them. William Lloyd 
Garrison, editor of the Liberator, 
led a faction demanding the 
breaking up of the Union. 

Great people belonged to 
these Abolition parties. Among 
them were Whittier, the poet 
(§381) ; Sumner, a United States 
senator; Phillips, a great orator ; 
and Lucretia Mott, a Quakeress. 
Among congre^ismen were Gid- 
dings and Chase of Ohio and 
Slade of Vermont. 

408. What the South thought about Abolitionists. The 
majority of slaveholders thought that the two races 

10 




WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON 



2S8 



THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 




BURNING ANTI-SLAVERY DOCUMENTS AT CHARLESTON 



could live together only as master and slave (1840). Cal- 
houn declared that "slavery is a good, a positive good." 

The slavehold- 
ers denounced 
the Abolition- 
ists for sending 
the Liberator 
and other doc- 
uments to the 
South. They 
declared that 
the slave would 
become discon- 
tented and rise 
and murder 
the whites. 

409. What the North thought. The majority in the 
North opposed the Abolitionists at first, and broke up 
their meetings. Those opposed to the Abolitionists 
destroyed their printing presses in New York and Cin- 
cinnati, and in Illinois murdered Lovejoy, who was defend- 
ing his newspaper. 

Aided by congressmen of the North, southern members 
passed the famous "gag" resolution. This resolution 
tried to shut anti-slavery petitions out of Congress. The 
South made a great mistake. Before this only a few 
hundred petitions came into Congress, but now they came 
by the hundreds. 

John Quincy Adams was the hero of the battle in Con- 
gress for the right of petition (§267). He lived to see the 
gag resolution repealed (1844). 

410. A third party. The result was an Abolition party 
formed in 1840 with James G. Birney as a candidate for 



THE TEXAN REVOLUTION 



259 



president. Its popular vote was 7,000. It took a new- 
name in 1844, the Liberty party, but held to candidate 
Birney and polled 62,000 votes. The number opposed 
to slavery, however, was made much larger by the 
fight over the right of petition. 

THE TEXAN REVOLUTION. TERRITORY ON THE PACIFIC 

411. Texas wins her independence (1836). After 
Mexico won her independence (182 1) from Spain, Ameri- 
cans, encouraged by the Republic of Mexico, began to 
settle in Texas. 
But the Ameri- 
cans and Mexi- 
cans did not get 
on well together. 
They differed in 
both race and re- 
ligion. When 
Mexico abolished 
slavery, American 
settlers paid httle attention to the law. Mexico then 
forbade them to settle in Texas. 

The Texans rebelled and set up an independent govern- 
ment. Scores of brave men rushed to the aid of Texas. 
The Mexicans attacked and brutally murdered the few 
who remained of the garrison at the Alamo and 300 men 
at Goliad. But General Sam Houston was coming to 
the aid of the Texans. He defeated and captured Santa 
Anna at San Jacinto (1836). 

412. The campaign of 1844. The Democrats nomi- 
nated James K. Polk of Tennessee, and the Whigs, Henry 
Clay of Kentucky. The Liberty party put up Birney 
again. Polk favored the annexation of Texas, and Clay 




THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO 



26o 



THE QUESTION OP SLAVERY 



Opposed it unless Mexico gave her consent. He did not 
want war with our neighbor. Whether Texas should 
or should not be admitted was 
the great question in the cam- 
paign. 

413. Texas annexed. Presi- 
dent Jackson had been kept 
from annexing Texas by the 
danger to his party in the 
North if more slave territory 
were added. But President 
Tyler favored annexation. It 
took place by joint resolution 
of Congress (1845). This was 
an entirely new way of ad- 
mitting a state. 

414. Origin of the Oregon 
question. The Oregon coun- 
try extended from the southern line of Alaska, 54°4o', 
down to 42°, and from the Rocky Mountains to the 
Pacific. We have seen our claims to this region (§301). 
The Hudson's Bay Fur Company also very early claimed 
it for Great Britain and had driven out American trappers 
(§301). In 1818 the dispute over this region was settled 
for a time by a treaty which agreed that both nations 
might occupy Oregon until further notice. 

Russia, immediately after the declaration of the Mon- 
roe Doctrine (§350), agreed not to extend the southern 
line of Alaska farther south. 

415. The Settlement of Oregon. About 1830 an east- 
ern business man began to plan a chain of posts for pur- 
poses of trade in this region. The Methodists, fired by 
zeal, sent missionaries to the Indians of the Willamette 




JAMES K. POLK 




THE 

OREGON BOUNDARY 

DISPUTE 

Scale of Miles, 



b, R.o4. McN.ll; i.Ccimf«aj- 



TERRITORY ON THE PACIFIC 261 

Valley (1834). Congregationalists and Catholics fol- 
lowed. The Spaniards had sent missionaries into this 
country from California long before our Revolution. 

Dr. Marcus Whitman was one of the early missionaries 
to Oregon. It is claimed that he became alarmed over 
the danger of the British seizing the country. He made a 
dangerous horseback ride, in dead of winter, to the East. 
He came to report on his mission work. But it is said 
that he went to Washington also and aroused President 
Tyler to the danger of permitting the British to seize 
the country. 

416. The Oregon Trail. How settlers migrated to 
Oregon. The bold pioneers to the Oregon country trav- 
eled much as did those who had crossed the Alleghenies a 
generation before. They gathered in large numbers at 
Westport, now Kansas City, for the journey was long 
and hard. They had to cross the Rockies and great 
stretches of country where water was scarce. 

They had great wagons drawn by teams of horses or of 
oxen. At night their wagons were drawn up in a big 
circle to keep off the Indians. They halted where grass 
and water were found. After supper the women and chil- 
dren rolled themselves in blankets and went to sleep under 
the stars. Some of the men stood guard over the camps 
while others looked out for cattle and horses. Sometimes 
on this journey they halted to bury one whom sickness 
had struck down. They left the body with only a pile 
of stones to mark the last resting place. At first it took 
twelve to sixteen weeks to reach their homes in some 
nook or valley of the new land. 

417. What the government did. A few men, Hke 
Senator Benton (§354) of Missouri, had always stood 
boldly in defense of this great region. He had his son- 



262 



THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 



in-law, John C. Fremont, sent to explore it. In three 
great expeditions Fremont wandered over the wild land 
of the Rocky Mountains, following the Oregon Trail to 
this region. Finally, after a long, bitter battle with snow 
and hunger, he crossed the Sierra Madre Mountains into 
California (1842-46). 

The hardy sons of the Willamette Valley set up a local 
government (1843). Hundreds of settlers were coming 
into other places. They naturally looked to the United 
States government to settle the disputed boundary 
question. 

418. How Oregon got into the campaign of 1844. The 
Democrats stole a march on the Whigs by their campaign 
cries: the " reannexation of Texas" for the South, and 
for the North they had two: "Fifty-four forty or fight" 

and "All Oregon or none."'^^ 
It was easier to win the elec- 
tion than to settle the questions 
raised in the campaign. Mexico 
had said she would fight if 
Texas were annexed (§412). 
Polk, the new president (1845- 
49), saw he must settle the Ore- 
gon question in a friendly way 
or have two wars on his hands 
at once. The dispute with 
Great Britain was compromised. 
Both nations accepted the line 
of 49°. Not without cause 
were some of those pioneers angry over the result. 

419. War with Mexico. Taylor's campaigns. The 
Mexican government had refused for a long time to settle 
for destroying American property. The Texans claimed 




ZACH.\RY TAYLOR 



TERRITORY ON THE PACIFIC 



263 



the Rio Grande as 
their southern line, 
while the Mexicans 
declared it to be 
the Nueces. When 
Mexico killed 
American soldiers 
in the disputed 
territory, Presi- 
dent Polk declared 
that Mexico "had 
shed American 
blood on American 
soil."!"*^ Congress 
immediately de- 
clared war (1846). 

General Taylor 
at once marched 
across the Rio 
Grande, and from 
Palo Alto to Buena 
vista (1847) won a 
series of brilliant 
victories. His boys 
called him ' ' Old 
Rough andReady . " 
He was a hero in 
the eyes of Ameri- 
cans. 

420. Scott's campaign. New Mexico and California. 
Polk planned a new campaign and put General Scott in 
command. This army smashed its way from Vera Cruz 
to the City of Mexico. Scott rode proudly at the head 








THE TEXAS BOU.vDARY DISPUTE 



264 



THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 



of the American army, in the land through which Cortez 
(§17) had journeyed more than 300 years before. vSanta 
Anna, president of Mexico, was compelled to make 
a treaty of peace (1848). 

One of the longest marches ever made through an 
enemy's country was made by Colonel S. W. Kearney 
and his men. They went from Fort Leavenworth, 







TERRITORY GAINED BY THE TREATY OF PEACE, 



Kansas, to California. They traveled the old Santa Fe 
trail to Santa Fe, New Mexico (§31), captured this 
town, and set up a new government (1846). With a part 
of his men Kearney made his way to California. He 
found California almost conquered. 

American settlers had already raised the standard of 
revolt and had set up the Bear State republic. Fremont 
joined forces with them. By the aid of a small fleet 
the Americans had most of CaHfornia under control when 
Kearney's men arrived. 



NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 265 

Mexico, for $15,000,000, turned over to the United 
States California and New Mexico. Later (1853) the 
Gadsden Purchase was added (see map). 

SHALL THE NEW TERRITORY BE SLAVE OR FREE? 

421. Opposition to the war. The Wihnot Proviso. 

Thousands of anti-slavery people in the North opposed 
the war. The Whig party opposed it, but voted men and 
money to carry it on. 

President Polk asked Congress for $2,000,000 to make 
peace with Mexico. The House refused. It declared 
that no territory obtained by the war should ever be open 
to slavery. This was the Wilmot Proviso. i^*^ It did not 
pass, for the Senate was against it. But it showed how 
strong the anti-slavery sentiment was. After two years 
of quarreling over slavery Congress succeeded in passing 
a bill for the free territory of Oregon (1848). 

422. Taylor president. The Free-Soil party (1848). 
Both Democrats and Whigs were afraid of the slavery 
question. The Democrats, whose majority lay in the 
South, nominated a northern man. Senator Cass, from a 
state containing many anti-slavery Whigs. The Whigs 
nominated General Taylor, a southern man, from a state 
containing thousands of pro-slavery voters. 

The strong anti-slavery men were disgusted. They 
met at Buffalo and boldly nominated Martin Van Buren 
(§361). They sent forth a platform against slavery in 
the territories. Liberty party men united with anti- 
slavery Democrats and Whigs in shouting for "free soil, 
free speech, free labor, and free men." The soldier 
candidate won I^" Even South CaroHna voted for Taylor. 

423. Gold discovered in California (1848). Gold was 
discovered in California shortly after the territory was 



266 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 

ceded to the United States by Mexico. Its discovery 
was an accident. Some men, digging a mill-race along 
the American River several miles above Sacramento, 
"^-^ _ discovered yellow 

grains in the sand. 
** They proved to be 

gold. The news 
went everywhere. 
There was great 
excitement. The old 
slow ways of making a living 
were given up. Laborers work- 
mg at lumbering, milling, herd- 
mg, clerking, farming, rushed to 
the gold region. Soldiers and 
sailors deserted their posts of- 
duty In four months there 
A cALiioRM„ MiN.N^ ...Ml ^i ^v wcrc 4,ooo digging gold on the 
American River. The next year saw the "Forty- 
niners" reach California from the ends of the earth. 
Many followed the Oregon trail to the point where a 
branch turned off to the land of gold. Some went by 
ship by way of Cape Horn. Others crossed by way of 
Panama to the Pacific. Intense suffering was experienced 
by either route. Many going overland perished from cold 
in the mountains or from hunger and thirst in the "deserts. ' ' 
424. The gold miners make California a free state. 
The people of California had to act quickly. There were 
nearly 100,000 of them (1849). They needed a govern- 
ment to keep order. They held a convention and adopted 
a constitution shutting out slavery. President Taylor 
favored admitting CaHfornia with her anti-slavery con- 
stitution."^ The slaveholders were astounded. 




NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 



267 



Congress was excited over California. The Sovfth was 
disappointed, and threats of secession were heard. 

425. Henry Clay, the peacemaker, to the rescue (1850). 
Henry Clay, with thousands of southerners, loved the 
Union first. He was an old and broken man. He had 
retired from the Senate, but both Whig and Democrat in 
the Kentucky legislature united to send him back to his 
place. They hoped the nation would be thrilled once 
more by that voice in favor of union. 

He introduced his compromise. This was soon called 
the "Omnibus Bill" — it contained so many measures: 
(i) the admission of CaHfornia with her free state consti- 
tution; (2) the territories of Utah and New Mexico 
organized without settling the slavery question; (3) the 
abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; 
(4) a new law for the return 
of fugitive slaves; (5) the 
dispute between Texas and 
New Mexico over boundary 
lines settled by paying Texas 
$10,000,000. 

426. The great debate 
(1850). No such able orators 
as those who took part in the 
great debate had been heard 
before in the Senate: Clay, 
Webster, Calhoun, Benton, 
Douglas, Davis, Seward, 
Chase, and others. 

Early in February, Clay 
arose to speak. There was a crowded house. People 
had come hundreds of miles to hear that silvery voice 
make a last appeal for the Union. He spoke for two 




MILLARD FILLMORE 



!68 



THE QUESTIOX OF SLAVERY 



days. He seemed young again. When he closed, people 
rushed forward to congratulate him and fair ladies to 
press upon his cheek the kiss of admiration. 

Calhoun was too ill to speak. A friend read his address. 
What a scene ! ' ' There he sat, motionless as a statue, with 
the hand of death upon him." He watched the effect of 
his words upon his audience. He asked: (i) an equal 
division of the territories; (2) a better fugitive slave law; 
(3) the stopping of anti-slavery agitation. He declared: 
"If you of the North will not do these things, let our 
southern states depart in peace." 

Webster made his fatal "Seventh of March Speech." 
It was "For the Union and the Constitution." In divid- 
ing the blame between the agitators of the North and the 
South he seemed to consider that the North was most at 
fault. The anti-slavery Whigs of New England made 
his few remaining days bitter on account of this speech. 




WEBSTER ADDRESSING THE SENATE ON THE 7TH OF MARCH 



The new champion of slavery was found in Jefferson 
Davis, who was already taking the place of the dying 



NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 



269 



Calhoun."'' Seward declared there was "a higher law 
than the Constitution," the moral law. 




JEFFERSON DAVIS IN THE COMPROMISE DEBATES IN CONGRESS 

427. The results of the compromise. Congress passed 
the measures in the Omnibus Bill, and it seemed for a 
time a happy settlement of the difficulty. The renewed 
feeling for the Union was encouraged by Whigs and 
Democrats holding together "Union meetings." But 
anti-slavery men found fault with the compromise on 
account of the Fugitive Slave Law (Art. IV, §2, ^[3). 
The extreme pro- slavery men found fault with it because 
it did not suppress agitation among the AboHtionists. 

428. Franklin Pierce president (1853-57). The cam- 
paign of 1852 was an overwhelming victory for the Demo- 
crats. General Scott, the Whig candidate, believed up 
to the last moment that he would be elected. The cam- 
paign was like a funeral procession for the Whigs. Clay 
died at its beginning and Webster at its close. The 
Whig party, too, was dying. Men began to speak of a 



270 



THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY 




new ' ' era of good feeling " (§351). Pierce in his inaugural 
pledged himself to encourage the growing harmony. 

429. "Underground Railroad." 
The term "Underground Railroad" 
named the secret routes along which 
fugitive slaves were helped to reach 
Canada. ^^"^ Sometimes the anti- 
slavery men would enter a slave 
state to help negroes to run away. 
Everything had to be done secretly, 
. ^^jHW^^^mkr for such acts were violations of the 
Fugitive Slave Law (§425). Hun- 
dreds of anti-slavery men were vio- 
lating the laws of Congress to keep 
from violating Seward's "higher 
law" (§426). 

A number of northern states 
passed Personal Liberty laws to protect men ' ' working on 
the Underground Railroad," and forbade people to aid 
slave hunters. These laws nulHfied the Fugitive Slave 
Law as much as South CaroHna nullified the tariff (§404)- 
Many anti-slavery people were encouraged to seize 
slaves in spite of the officers of the law and the slave- 
holder. ^^^ Men were murdered by both sides. 

430. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). Harriet Beecher 
Stowe saw a bit of slave Hfe in Kentucky. She painted 
the good and the bad sides of slavery. But she set forth 
the dark side much more fully. The experiences through 
which she put Uncle Tom were not the rule in the South, 
but the exception. Uncle Tom's Cabin was a powerful 
novel. "That .book will make 2,000,000 Abohtionists," 
said a northern man. "All the defenders of slavery have 
let me alone and are after you," said Garrison (§407)- 



FRANKLIN PIERCE 



NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 271 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 11 7-21 2; 
Lodge, Webster ("American Statesmen Series"), 154-184; Schurz, 
Clay ("American Statesmen Series"), II, 1-22, 69-94, 315-335; 
Elson, Side Lights, I, 241-300; Sparks, Expansion of the American 
People, chaps, xxiv, xxxi-xxxiii; Grant, Memoirs, I, 92-174; Hart, 
Contemporaries, III, 579-583, 591-594, 612-618; IV, 75-79, 80-83; 
Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, IV, 135-414; Bassett, Short History, 
428-441, 445-450, 497-504; Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, chaps, 
vii, xii-xiii; McMaster, People of the United States, VII, chaps. Ixxx- 
Ixxxii, Ixxxv; VIII, chap. Ixxxvi; Khodes,, History of the United States, 
I, chaps, i-v; II, chaps, vii-viii; III, chap. xiii. 

References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 269-298 (Clay, 
Webster, Calhoun, Lincoln); Mace, Lincoln, the Man of the People, 
i-ioo; Hart, Source Book, 248-279, 284-296; Drake, Meaning of the 
Great West, 215-240, 271-284; Wright, American Progress. 

Fiction: Lowell, Biglow Papers; Whittier, Angels of Buena Vista; 
Butterworth, Log School House; Carr, Ulini; Monroe, Golden Days of 
'49; Smedes, Memorials of a Southern Planter; Hale, New England 
Boyhood; Jorcom, New England Girlhood. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I . Two boys sit in the Senate during the Webster-Hayne debate. 
Write on opposite sides for your teacher. 2. You are a member of 
Jackson's "kitchen" cabinet. Report what Jackson says about 
Calhoun and South Carolina to a member of Congress. 3. Dramatize 
a meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society ; characters. Garrison 
and other leaders among the abolitionists. 4. Dramatize the "great 
debate" in 1850. 5. "Write up" a slave's experiences in escaping 
by way of the Underground Railroad. 6. Read Uncle Tom's Cabin 
and write what you think was unfair to the South. 



CHAPTER XVII 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 



THE KANSAS STRUGGLE DRIVES THE NORTH AND 
SOUTH FARTHER APART 



431. The career of Douglas (1813-61). Douglas, born 
in Vermont, lost his father when a mere boy. He was 

put to learn the carpenter's trade. 
His family moved near Canan- 
daigua, New York, where young 
Douglas entered the academy. 
He became the best debater in 
school and a general favorite. In 
a couple of years he left for the 
West and turned up in Illinois 
with 1 7 cents in his pockets. He 
was clerk to an auctioneer for 
three days, taught school, studied 
law, and became attorney-general 
of the state at twenty-one. He 
was a congressman at thirty, a 
United States senator at thirty- 
four, and in 1852 at the age of thirty-nine received 
ninety-one votes for nomination for president. He 
rapidly became the idol of the northern Democrats, and 
was probably the greatest "offhand debater America has 
ever produced. 

432. Douglas raises a storm over Kansas (1854). Had 
it not been for the Kansas question, the North and the 
South would have Hved peacefully together for many 




STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 



272 



j^i:^^" 



\ h^ 







Tl 



^^r 1. 



i-'I -^ K 



I- 




NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 273 

years. Early in 1854 Douglas brought in a bill making 
two territories out of the region running from the Missouri 
River to the Rocky Mountains. In these two territories, 
Kansas and Nebraska, the slavery question was left in 
the hands of the people living there. Douglas called this 
"popular sovereignty," but his enemies named it "squat- 
ter sovereignty." He proposed to repeal the Missouri 
Compromise (§346). 

Suddenly Douglas felt a storm crashing round his head. 
The North was furious ; pulpit and press thundered their 
protests against this measure. The anti-slavery men said 
that Congress could not possibly put slavery into this 
territory. Public meetings everywhere in the North 
denounced Douglas and his bill. He was hissed from a 
platform in his own city of Chicago. ^^^ 

In spite of northern opposition, the bill was passed and 
signed by the President, who had so lately promised not 
to disturb the good feeling growing out of the Com- 
promise of 1850. 

433. The struggle for Kansas begins. Both sides were 
ready for the struggle for Kansas. The pro-slavery men 
from Missouri reached Kansas first because they were 
nearest. But Eli Thayer had already organized in New 
England the "Emigrant Aid Society" to send northern 
men there. 

In the summer of 1854 the first company started on its 
long journey to the disputed territory. It was a strange 
company on a strange errand ! People gathered to cheer 
them on their way, and a few joined them. They located 
at Lawrence. 

The South was not to be out done, and bands of settlers 
entered to make Kansas a slave territory. But the North 
had more men to send. 



274 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 



434. The two rivals face to face (1855). The pro- 
slavery men won the first election because in the beginning 




^^Si&ev" 



EMIGRANTS OX THEIR WAY TO KANSAS 



of the struggle they had more voters in the territory. 
They elected a delegate to Congress, set up a state 
government, drew up the Lecompton constitution, and 
passed laws favoring slavery. The antislavery men 
immediately raised the cry of fraud and refused to 
accept the Lecompton constitution. 

They did not stop with this, but went to work as Cali- 
fornia had done (§425), to make a free state constitution. 
Having done this they applied for admission to the Union 
as a free state. 

There were rival governments in Kansas now, a slave 
state and a free state one. Soon the wilder element in 
both factions began burning and murdering. There was 
civil war in Kansas — "bleeding Kansas" the territory 
was now called. The attention of the whole county was 
fixed on Kansas. 



NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 



275 



435. The effect upon the country. Nobody was more 
surprised at this upheaval than Douglas. But he 
met the ablest anti-slavery men in debate in the Senate. 
Some members of Congress were now carrying arms. 
Most unfortunately of all, good men, North and South, 
were growing suspicious of each other. The North felt that 
the South was determined to put slavery in all the ter- 
ritories and even in the free states. The South believed 
that the North was bound to stamp out slavery, 
not only in the territories, but in the states where it 
long had existed. 

436. The Republican party (1854-56). The passing of 
the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the deeds done in Kansas 
had stirred the country. The Whig party was dead. 
The southern wing joined the Democrats. The northern 
Whigs united with thousands 

of anti-slavejy Democrats and 
Free-Soilers to form the new 
Republican party. Seward was 
the leader of the Whig side of 
the new party. Chase of the 
Democrats and Free-Soilers. 
The Republicans were de- 
nounced as a " sectional party ' ' 
and as "Black Republicans." 
On a platform demanding that 
all territory should be free, the 
party nominated John C. 
Fremont , the " Pathfinder ' ' 
(§417). The Democrats put 
Douglas aside and named an old 
bachelor, James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. He had 
been out of the country during the Kansas struggle. A 




JAMES BUCHANAN 



276 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 



third or "American" party — the "Know-Nothings," as 
they were nicknamed — arose to keep . foreigners out of 
office. Many Whigs and Democrats, North and South, 
voted for "Know-Nothing" men. 

The Republicans had the enthusiasm, but the Demo- 
crats had the votes. All the northern states but four were 
carried by the Republicans. Their popular vote was 
1,300,000. Buchanan won. All the slave states but one 
voted for him. Something had to be done. The country 
was rapidly breaking into a North and a South. 

437. The Dred Scott Decision. The Supreme Court 
tried its hand, but it only widened the deepening chasm. 
Dred Scott, a negro slave, had sued for his freedom 
because he had been taken into free territory. Chief 
Justice Taney declared: (i) that slaves were not citi- 
zens; (2) that they might be taken to any territory like 
other property; (3) that neither territorial legislatures 
nor Congress could put them out. Hence the Missouri 
Compromise was against the Constitution (§346). 

This decision was a blow at the Republican party and 
^ --^ ^ at Douglas' doc- 

trine of ' ' popular 
sovereignty. ' ' 
The North felt 
outraged. The 
vSouth was happy 
over the decision. 
One more blow was 
needed to split the 
Democratic party. 
We must stop here 
to look at the man in the Republican party who was to 
deliver that blow. 




IHE LOG CABIN BIRTHPLACE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN 



NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 



277 



438. Abraham Lincoln (1809-65). Abraham Lincoln 
was born among the Kentucky hills. At .the age of seven 
his parents moved to southern Indiana. Lincoln lived 
there until he was twenty- 
one. His father built a three- 
sided shack for a home. The 
next year a log cabin with 
only the earth for a floor, 
took its place. The mother 
before she died had taught 
young Lincoln to read. 

His stepmother was kind 
to him and saw that he had a 
chance to go to school. He 
was the best speller in his 
neighborhood. He was big 
for his age and could outdo 
the others in games of 
strength, and he kept peace among the boys. He liked 
mental work better than hand work. He read when he 
could and made figures on the wooden shovel by the light 
of the fire. He walked miles to borrow a book or to 
read a newspaper. 

He was a man in size and strength at seventeen, and he 
was a favorite at log-rollings, or where strength was 
demanded. When he lived in Indiana and once while 
he was in Illinois, he went to New Orleans as a "hand" 
on a flatboat. When he was twenty-one his parents 
moved to Illinois. Lincoln was clerk in a store, surveyor, 
postmaster, and captain in the Black Hawk War. He 
studied law, was elected to the legislature, and it was at 
the capital that he saw Douglas the first time. 

He was four times in the IlHnois legislature and once in 




ABRAHAM LINCOLN 



2 78 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 

Congress. He had frequent debates with Douglas, and 
after 1854 they were held oftener and grew more serious. 
Lincoln saw the approaching political storm. 

439. A house divided against itself (1858). Douglas 
came up for reelection to the United States Senate. The 
Republicans, meeting in state convention at Springfield, 
declared, "Abraham Lincoln is our first and only 
choice" for that position. 

That night Lincoln made a most famous speech ^^'^ before 
the convention, saying: "A house divided against itself 
cannot stand. This government cannot endure perma- 
nently half slave and half free It will become 

all one thing or all the other." 

Douglas, before a great audience in Chicago, denounced 
Lincoln for trying to cause war between sections. Lincoln 
replied the following night, denied Douglas' charges and 
showed the weak points in the doctrine of "popular 
sovereignty." Other political duels followed, and Lin- 
coln challenged Douglas to debate the question before 
the people of Illinois. 

440. The great debates. The debates attracted wide- 
spread attention. People gathered from far and near to 
hear them. They came the day before the debate was 
to be held, afoot, on horseback, and in great wagons. 
Some of these wagons carried whole families; others were 
decorated with flags and banners, and loaded w4th young 
women. On the great day there was a vast, jostling, 
noisy, good-natured crowd of country, village, and city 
folk. 

The presence of reporters from distant cities showed 
how the country viewed the coming battle. 

What a difference in the two men! Douglas was short 
and thick. Ke spoke rapidly and powerfully. He carried 



NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 



-79 



his hearers by storm. He loved a hand-to-hand fight, 
and when his arguments were weak, he "threw dust in 




LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DSBATE AT FREEPORT 



the eyes of his audience " and made ' ' the worse appear the 
better reason." 

Lincoln was tall, slender, and awkward. He spoke 
slowly and calmly. His language was plain, sometimes 
quaint and humorous. He was a great story-teller. But 
his mind was sure, if slow. He always debated to find 
the truth and to set it forth. He was the one man Douglas 
feared. 

Lincoln compelled Douglas to admit that a territory 
could get rid of slavery by unfriendly laws. Douglas 
was thus true to his doctrine of "popular sovereignty," 
but this admission was against the Dred Scott decision 
(§437) and made the South angry. But by this stand 
Douglas held the people of Illinois. 

441. The result. Throughout seven joint debates they 
discussed slavery in some form or other, but they always 



j8o 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 




came back to the question of whether or not the 
legislature of a territory could prevent slavery. Douglas 

was elected sena- 
tor, but he had 
lost the support of 
the South for the 
presidency (§431)- 
Lincoln began as 
an Illinois leader. 
He ended with a 
nationalreputa- 

JOHN BkOWN'S fort 4--^„ TT- 

tion. His success 
made him later a popular candidate for the presidency. 

442. John Brown's raid (1859). In the fall of 1859 
the country was alarmed by the news that John Brown 
with a few companions had captured Harper's Ferry. 
He planned to set the slaves free. Only a few joined him. 
He was arrested, and after a fair trial was hanged. The 
South was startled at the thought of what might have 
been. A few people at the North regarded Brown as a 
martyr. The strain between the North and the South 
had reached the breaking point. 

443. The Democratic party splits (i860). Men looked 
forward with anxiety to the Democratic convention to 
meet at Charleston. Lincoln by his master strokes had 
widened the chasm between the northern and southern 
Democrats. Northern Democrats stood faithfully by 
Douglas. The southern men left the convention and 
nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Later 
Douglas was named at Baltimore. 

444. Lincoln the winner. The Republicans, full of 
enthusiasm, met at Chicago. Seward had been a trusted 
leader, but many remembered his "higher law" doctrine 



NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 



and his "irrepressible conflict" speech. ^^^ They thought 
Lincoln a safer man. The border states of the North 
were all for him and he was nominated. Bell of Tennessee 
was put up by a convention of Union men. They declared 
that the way to settle the slavery question was to cease 
talking about it and to stand by the "Constitution, the 
Union, and the enforcement of the laws." 

Lincoln won with a people's vote of over 1,800,000 and 
180 of the electoral vote. Douglas came next with over 
1,375,000 votes, but only 12 electoral votes. Breckin- 
ridge, who got over 100,000 votes in the North, in all had 
only a few more than 800,000, with 72 electoral votes. 




THE NOMINATION OF LINCOLN AT CHICAGO 



Bell received less support from the people, only 640,000 
votes, but won 39 electoral votes. 

What will the South do? Southern leaders had said 
that Lincoln's election would be a cause for secession. 
But the North thought this talk mere bluster. As the 



282 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 

campaign showed Lincoln's election to be certain, the 
grumbhng and threats grew greater. Douglas made a 
journey to the South to appeal to southerners not to leave 
the Union, but his trip was in vain. 

THE SOUTH SECEDES. COXCILL\TION FAILS 

445. South Carolina leads in secession; other states 
follow. South Carohna acted first. A convention was 
quickly called and an "Ordinance of secession" intro- 
duced. It was short, but men listened intently while 
it was read. This ordinance simply repealed the act by 
which South Carolina had ratified the Constitution (§256). 
It was passed without one opposing vote. The people 
of Charleston were beside themselves with joy at being 
free from the Union. They did not yet know the full 
meaning of this act. 

Six other states followed South Carolina's lead : Missis- 
sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 
In some of these states many Union men made powerful 
speeches pointing out what they had gained from a union 
which they had controlled. But in the end they went 
with their states. The able and upright Alexander H. 
Stephens was such a man. 

446. The right to secede. When the Constitution was 
first made, only a few men denied the right of a state to 
leave the Union. Threats of secession had been made at 
various times in both North and South. But gradually 
the North came to be devoted to the nation and to deny 
the right to secede. The South gradually came to be the 
champion of this right. Hence the southern people denied 
that they were "rebels," but said they were engaging in 
a movement which the Constitution did not forbid. 

The southern people declared that in practice secession 



THE SOUTH SECEDES 



283 




was the only way left to protect their rights. They 
charged that Lincoln had been elected because he was 
opposed to slavery. The Aboli- 
tionists, they said, were in favor 
of abolishing slavery every- 
where ; it was only a question of 
time until the whole North, with 
its great crowds of foreigners, 
would come to this point of view. 
Hence secession was a necessity. 
The North could point to its 
Free-Soil and Republican plat- 
forms expressly denying the 
right to touch slavery in the 
states where it already existed. 
Lincoln wrote to Alexander H. 
Stephens pointing out this fact. 
The North also held with Jackson and Webster that this 
Union was a government of the people and could be 
destroyed only by a successful rebellion. 

447. The southern Confederacy formed (i86i). Dele- 
gates from the seceded states met at once and formed 
a government at Montgomery, Alabama. They elected 
Jefferson Davis (§340) president and Alexander H. 
Stephens vice-president (February). They changed the 
old Constitution in some important points, (i) The term 
of the president was made six years without any reelec- 
tion. (2) Cabinet members were given the right to 
address Congress and to debate bills. (3) The states 
were made sovereign. (4) Protection was given to slavery 
in the territories as well as in the states. 

448. Buchanan uncertain. The rush of events in the 
South carried men off their feet. Buchanan was in a hard 



JEFFERSON DAVIS 



284 



THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 




ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS 



position. His cabinet was made up partly of southern 
men. His message did not help the North: states had 
no right to secede, but no power 
was given the president to pre- 
vent them. Northern men 
thought of what Jackson had 
done (404). 

When the southern members 
left the Cabinet to join their 
states, northerners were put in 
their places. Buchanan seemed 
to take courage. He sent a ship- 
load of supplies to Fort Sumter. 
The guns in Charleston harbor 
fired on the ship and she re- 
turned without being able to 
reach the fort. 
449. Can war be prevented? Neither side wanted war. 
Good men on both sides tried to prevent it. The North 
tried to get the southern states back into the Union. 
How could this be done? Men thought at once of the 
old plan of compromise. 

Crittenden of Kentucky, who had taken Clay's place, 
offered a plan of compromise: (i) All territory above 
36° 30' was to be free, and all below slave. (2) When new 
states came into the Union, they might decide to be free 
or slave. (3) Congress was denied power over slavery 
in the states where it already existed. 

This plan touched the heart of the Republican plat- 
form, and RepubHcan leaders would not accept the 
arrangement. Many people in both sections were sorely 
disappointed over the failure. 

Virginia sent forth a call for a convention of states. No 
seceded state responded, but other slave states sent dele- 



THE SOUTH SECEDES 285 

gates. The twenty states there represented suggested a 
plan somewhat hke the Crittenden Compromise. Con- 
gress refused to pass it also. People's minds seemed set 
on war. Men said they would wait and see. 

450. Will Lincoln be inaugurated (1861)? Lincoln 
spoke tender words to his home people as he left for 
Washington. He had kept his eye on the movement of 
things. He was cheered by the hearty greetings along 
the way. The great West spoke to the people again, 
especially at Independence Hall,^^^ Philadelphia, where 
Lincoln raised a flag. Rumors of a plot led him, against 
his will, to go secretly the rest of the way to Washington. 

In the meantime the country was full of excitement. 
The Confederacy was getting ready— preparing soldiers 
and raising money. Washington City was full of people 
who wanted to see the Confederacy succeed. Rumors of 
various sorts spread around. General Scott took com- 
mand of the Union forces and was ready for the worst. 

451. The inaugural address. In his address to the 
multitude, Lincoln let it be known just where he. stood, 
(i) His great aim was to preserve the Union. (2) No 
state could secede. (3) The laws would be enforced in 
all the states. (4) Forts in all states would be occupied 
and held by the government. (5) He closed with these 
words: "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-country- 
men, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. 
The government will not assail you. You can have no 
conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. We 
are not enemies, but friends. The mystic chords of 
memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot 
grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this 
broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union when 
again touched, as they surely will be, by the better angels 
of our nature." 



286 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 

Douglas and his friends, standing around Lincoln, let 
it be known that the address pleased them. But the 
South saw no word of compromise in this speech. 

452. Bath presidents wait. Up to March 4 the Union 
may be said to have had the advantage from not being 
the aggressor. The Confederacy had seceded and had 
seized forts, arsenals, and ports which in the eyes of the 
North belonged to the Union. The South, too, had fired 
on the ship loaded with provisions for Fort Sumter. 
Neither side wanted to arouse public feeling by beginning 
the war. Hence they waited several weeks. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 185-212; 
Morse, Lincoln, I, 166-228; Elson, Side Lights on American History, I, 
294-336; II, 1-24, 40-46; Bassett, Short History, chap, xxiii, 497-504; 
Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, II, 251-359, 384-416, 440-502; III, 
chap, xiii; McMaster, People of the United Stales, VIII, chap, xcvi; 
Hart, Contemporaries, III, chaps, viii-ix; IV, 104-118, 155-159, 180- 
186; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, V, 130-305; Johnson, Stephen A. 
Douglas, chap, xviii; Julian, Personal Recollections, 134-150. 

References for pupils: Mabie, Heroes Every Child Should Know, 
309-319; Baldwin, Four Great Americans, 186-246; Williams, Successful 
Americans; Barstow, A New Natio>i, 166-180, 186-209; Hart, Source 
Book, 284-296; Hart, Romance of the Civil War, 1-74, 177-196; Mace, 
Abraham Lincoln, 101-148; Champlin, Young Folks' History of War 
for the Union, 24-49; Eggleston, Household History, 103-310. 

Fiction: Eggleston, Two Gentlemen of Virginia; Trowbridge, 
Neighbor Jackwood; Civil War Stories Retold from St. Nicholas. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. You are an anti-slavery senator. Write to the New York 
Tribune the story of the northern attack on Douglas in the Senate 
and in the nation as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill passes. .2. You are 
a member of the Emigrant Aid Society. Write a story back home 
telling how you got to Kansas and what you found. 3. The entire 
class attends the Freeport debate and writes its impressions of the 
crowd, of the speakers, and of the arguments. 4. Attend the Demo- 
cratic Convention in i860 and report for a northern paper. 5. Go 
with Douglas to the South. Tell what he says to southerners and 
what they say to him. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE WAR BETWEEN THE UNION AND 
THE CONFEDERACY 

THE WAR BEGINS 

453. Fort Sumter falls (April 14). Waiting time was 
over. Lincoln ordered supplies to be sent to Major 
Anderson in Fort Sumter. Davis ordered the guns in 
Charleston to fire on the fort. Great crowds gathered 
to witness the opening event of the war. The little band 
in the fort bravely defended the flag all day. By after- 
noon the fort was on fire and the walls were broken in 
many places. Smoke and cinders almost choked the men. 
Some lay upon the ground and covered their faces with 
wet cloths. Others crept to the portholes for a breath 
of fresh air. Explosion followed explosion, but the men 



V««'t'?Ni^ 




THE INTERIOR OF FORT SUMTER AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT 

would not surrender. Now and then they fired a gun 
to show that they were "holding the fort." 

287 



THE CIVIL WAR 



On Sunday afternoon Major Anderson, without the 
loss of a single man of the 128, with torn flag flying and 
drums beating, surrendered. Charleston and the Con- 
federacy were wild with excitement. 

454. Lincoln's call. That Sunday afternoon, Douglas 
(§431), the pohtical rival of Lincoln, called at the White 
House. On Monday morning two telegrams sped on 
the wings of lightning to the nation: one from Lincoln 
calling for 75,000 men; another from Douglas telling his 
fellow Democrats that he stood by the President. ^^^ 

On every farm, in every town and city in the North 
was heard the answer. In the pulpit and press as well 
as on the platform went up the cry: "The Union for- 
ever!" Flags, fife, and drum helped kindle the flame of 
war. From every walk in life poured forth volunteers. 
The foreigner and the native-born answered by offering 
their lives. A mighty wave of patriotic feeling was 
sweeping the North. There were no Democrats, no 
Republicans then; only Union men. 




HK WAR SPIRIT IN THE NORTH 



455. Other states secede when war comes. The same 
feeling, the same devotion, the same wild cry for the 



THE WAR BEGINS 




THE W\R SPIRIT IN THE SOUTH 



defense of their homes, was heard in the South. Men 
were quickly formed in companies, drilled and armed 
for the conflict. Here, 
too, the fife and drum 
aroused enthusiasm for 
the Confederacy. 

Four states — Virginia, 
North Carolina, Ten- 
nessee, and Arkansas — - 
joined the Confederacy. 
The border slave 
states must now choose 
between the Union and 
the CO;'nfederacy. It 
was not easy to do, for the people were divided. 
Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri ^re- 
mained faithful to the Union. 

The mountainous parts of North Carolina, Tennessee, 
and Virginia contained thousands of Union men. The 
people of West Virginia, as it is now called, formed a 
separate state which was admitted to the Union (1863). 

The danger of this new secession was seen in the fact 
that Virginia lies across the Potomac from Washington, 
and that General Lee,^" a native Virginian, threw in his 
lot with the Confederacy. The capital was removed from 
Montgomery to Richmond. 

456. Strength of the two sections (1861). The North 
had a population of 22,000,000; the South but 9,000,000 
and 3,500,000 of these were negroes. In the North there 
were over 5,000,000 men able to bear arms, while in the 
Confederate states there were hardly more than 1,500,000. 

In a long, hard war wealth counts. The North had 
hundreds of mills and factories, while the Confederacy 
II 



290 THE CIVIL WAR 

had but few. Iron works, shipyards, and hundreds of 
banks with plenty of money, were found in the North. 
The Confederacy boasted of but one iron mill, at Rich- 
mond, although she soon set up another at Atlanta. Her 
factories for clothing were few. There was but one great 
city in the Confederacy, New Orleans, and the Union 
forces captured that in the second year of the war. The 
North had two and one-half times as many miles of rail- 
roads. More important still, the North had the iron 
mills and mills to repair the railroads when there was 
need. The South had none. 

Is it any wonder that the people in the North thought 
the war would soon be over? 

But it was not so one-sided as it seemed. The Con- 
federates were fighting at home for their own firesides. 
They knew the ground better than the North. They 
had the help and sympathy of their own people. Even 
the negro slaves did not rise and murder their masters, 
but served them in the army or, most important of all, 
remained on the plantations and raised food for the Con- 
federate armies. 

The Confederacy had high hopes of sending cotton 
abroad to pay for guns and ships and to get gold. But 
the blockade stopped that, and made other imported 
things scarce. 

457. The first military objects of the war. Since 
Richmond had been made the capital of the Confederacy, 
the Union armies had two important objects in the war: 
to defeat Lee's army and take Richmond, and to open 
the Mississippi to its mouth. The navy had for its pur- 
pose the shutting of the ports of the South so tight that 
no ships could pass out or in. The political object of 
the war was the preservation of the Union. 



THE BLOCKADE OF CONFEDERATE PORTS 



291 



458. The Battle of Bull Run. What it taught. Both 
sections gathered troops near Manassas Junction, about 
30 miles from Washington. 
The Union army was under 
McDowell and the Confed- 
erates under Beauregarjd. 
Without McDowell's knowing 
it, Joseph E. Johnston was 
bringing reenforcements for 
the Confederates. The attack 
was made July 21. The ad- 
vantage at first was with the 
Union or Federal troops. ^^^ 
But Johnston's men helped to 
turn the battle into an awful 
Union rout. Soldiers, con- 
gressmen, and citizens rushed madly back on Washington. 

The South was elated over the victory; it proved the 
superior fighting qualities of their boys, they declared. 
It opened the eyes of the North. Congress proceeded to 
raise 500,000 men and $500,000,000 to carry on the 
conflict. 

George B. McClellan, who had been successful in West 
Virginia, was called to head the Army of the Potomac. 
For months he drilled the army until he made it a "fine 
working machine." 




PIERRE G. T. BEAUREGARD 



THE BLOCKADE OF CONFEDERATE PORTS 

459. What will England and France do? The South 
was a tobacco and cotton raising country (§401). With 
cotton it had to buy many things abroad. Therefore 
Lincoln struck a mighty blow at the Confederacy when 
he ordered her ports closed from Virginia to Texas. 



292 THE CIVIL WAR 

But France and England were interested. Their fac- 
tories would have to close, their laborers starve, and their 
merchants lose thousands upon thousands of dollars. 
Would England and France bear this loss in silence ? It 
was hardly to be expected. 

The South hoped these nations would break the block- 
ade. This would mean war with them. The North knew 
that England had long ago abolished slavery, and there- 
fore expected her sympathy. Both Great Britain and 
France agreed to remain neutral, but to recognize the 
"war rights" of the Confederates. 

460. The hard lot of a neutral. We know the lot of a 
neutral is a hard one (§289). The Confederacy sent 
Slidell to France and Mason to England to ask that the 
independence of the South be recognized. At Havana 
they took passage on an English ship, the "Trent." The 
next day a United States warship commanded by Captain 
Wilkes stopped the "Trent" and seized the Confederates. 

To the people of the North, Wilkes was a hero. But 
the people of England were angry at this "attack" on 
their flag. Both had forgotten their own history (§289). 

But Lincoln had not forgotten and surrendered the 
prisoners. Queen Victoria saw the danger of war in her 
government's letter to the United States, and so changed 
it that it did not stir angry feelings in this country. 

461. Battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merri- 
mac" (1862). The Confederates had one hope of breaking 
the blockade, the "Merrimac." She was in the Norfolk 
navy yard. They had covered her with railroad iron. 
She steamed into Hampton Roads and plunged her great 
ram into the wooden ship "Cumberland" and chased 
the "Congress" and burned her. One great day's work 
for the Confederacy ! Washington was frightened. 



THE BLOCKADE OF CONFEDERATE PORTS 



293 



That night a queer-looking craft sHpped into Hampton 
Roads, the "Monitor" built by Ericsson. She was an 
"ironclad." Her deck was just above the water. On this 
was a revolving turret or iron cylinder containing two 
big guns. The next day the battle began and continued 
for two hours. An officer on the "Merrimac" asked a 
gunner why he had ceased firing. ' ' I can do her as much 




THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE "MONITOR AND "MERRIMAC 

damage by snapping my thumb at her every two minutes 
and a half," was-his answer. The "Merrimac" steamed 
back to Norfolk. 

Neither side won. But the advantage was with the 
Union, for the blockade went on, and the government at 
Washington built many ironclads while the Confederacy 
could put out only a few. It marked the beginning of 
warships of iron and steel. 

462. Blockade runners and privateers. Europe sent 
small, swift ships to slip into southern ports on dark and 
stormy nights. Some of these got away with cotton for 
the European trade. Some carried it to the West Indies, 
where different nations bought it at a very high price. 
So high was the price that it paid the blockade runners 
even if they did get caught once in a while. 



294 



THE CIVIL WAR 




Now only one bale of cotton reached Europe where 
before the war more than one hundred reached it. Gold 

grew scarce 
( \'^'^,(^ 0-\ ,'^. Except cotton, 

everything in the 
Confederacy grew 
scarce and high. 
Would the block- 
ade finally force 
her to quit? 

CAMPAIGN FOR 
THE OPENING OF 
THE MISSISSIPPI 

463. B e gi li- 
nings of the great 
campaign (1862). 

Dougl as had 
pointed out that if the Confederates held the Missis- 
sippi River, ' ' grass would grow in the streets of western 
cities." Both sides tried to get hold of Missouri and 
Kentucky. The governments of both states at first 
sympathized with the Confederacy, but the majority of 
the people were for the Union. 

In Missouri, Francis P. Blair and General Lyon were 
too quick for the Confederates. Lyon was killed at 
Wilson Creek, but the Confederates, by the aid of Grant's 
victories, were driven into Arkansas. 

In Kentucky, General Grant, with the aid of a fleet of 
gunboats, had captured Forts Henry and Donelson (Feb- 
ruary, 1862), only a few miles apart on the Tennessee and 
the Cumberland rivers. Fifteen thousand Confederates 
were captured at Donelson. It was the first big battle of 
the Civil War and brought Grant great praise. 



A BLOCKADE RLNNER LO-VDED WITH COTTON FOR LUROPE 



CAMPAIGN FOR OPENING THE MISSISSIPPI 



295 



But he lost his hard-earned honors by allowing himself 
to be beaten back in the two days' battle of Shiloh, or 
Pittsburg Landing (April). The Confederates lost Gen- 
eral Albert Sidney Johnston ^^^ and were forced to retreat 
to Corinth. 

A union of Federal armies gave them 100,000 men. 
Corinth fell without a blow, and Commodore Foote 
forced Memphis to surrender. The Mississippi was now 
open down to Vicksburg. 

464. The capture of New Orleans (April 25). The 
Confederate forts along the Atlantic were already falling. 
To Captain Farragut was given the duty of capturing 
New Orleans. The Confederates had fortified it well. 

The fleet cut the cables guarding the harbor, bombard- 
ed the forts for five days, drove past them, and destroyed 
the gunboats. Hundreds fled from the city, and thou- 
sands of bales of cotton were burned. The fall of New 
Orleans was a hard blow. It was a great cotton city,_ 
and its fall discouraged Confederate friends in England. 




ONE OF FOOTE's GUNBOATS USED IN THE BATTLES ON THE OHIO 
AND MISSISSIPPI RIVERS 



465. The Confederate counterstroke (1862). To offset 
these victories, General Bragg, now commanding the 
Confederates in the West, slipped by General Buell and 



296 THE CIVIL WAR 

rushed across Tennessee and Kentucky, going straight 
for Louisville on the Ohio. Buell outraced him, reaching 




CAMPAIGNS FOR THE WESTERN STATES 

Louisville first. After the battle of Perry ville, Bragg 
retreated to Murfreesboro. 

General Rosecrans took Buell's place. The close of the 
old and the opening of the new year at Murfreesboro 
marked one of the hardest battles of the war. General 
Thomas held the Union center in spite of all attacks. 
The Confederates claimed the victory. In the meantime. 
Grant defeated but failed to capture Price at luka. 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE TWO CAPITALS 

466. The Peninsular Campaign (1862). The two capi- 
tals could be attacked directly across the country, by the 
Shenandoah, and by way of Chesapeake Bay. Whichever 
way was chosen, the others had to be watched. 

The North grew tired of waiting for McClellan to attack 
Richmond. But he finally went down Chesapeake Bay, 




THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CAPITALS 297 

started up the peninsula, lying between the York and 
James rivers, and fought his way to White House Landing, 
within sight of the 
spires of Richmond. 
General Joseph E. 
Johnston (§458) at- 
tacked him with great 
fury. The progress of 
the Confederates was 
checked and General 
Johnston was wound- 
ed. Lee took his place 

(§457)- 

Stonewall Jackson 
and his "foot cavalry" ■ \niw ^ \\\\\\\\\w'\v^'- ,\ 

dashed through the ^ . ^ ■^ '"^ 

Shenandoah, defeated "'^^'^"'^ "•''""°^ mcclellan 

the Union armies protecting that route, and were soon 
back with Lee's army. McDowell, protecting the direct 
route, was expecting Jackson to attack Washington and 
withdrew to defend the Union capital. 

General Stuart's Confederate cavalry added to the 
excitement. It circled McClellan's army, tore up rail- 
roads, and burned supplies. 

467. The "Seven Days" battle. The second battle 
of Bull Run. Lee now attacked with great fury and 
drove McClellan to retreat (July). The Army of the 
Potomac went back to Washington. 

Lee struck a terrific blow at Pope's forces, a new army 
just made up,* and defeated them on the ill-fated field of 
. Bull Run (August) . 

468. Lee's first invasion (September). Flushed with 
victory, Lee crossed the Potomac and was on the soil of 



298 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Maryland. In the battle of Antietam, one of the greatest 
battles of the Civil War, McClellan attacked Lee. Vic- 
tory was claimed by both sides. Lee retired to Virginia, 
but McClellan failed to attack him as he recrossed the 
Potomac. For this McClellan was removed, and General 
Burnside was given command of the Army of the Potomac. 




THE EASTERN CAMPAIGNS 



Just as soon as the Union army had rested, Burnside 
led it across the Rappahannock River and struck Lee's 
army on the Heights of Fredericksburg. Lee defeated 



UPROOTING SLAVERY 



299 




ROBi-RT EDWARD LEE 



him with greater loss to the Union than in any previous 
battle. ' ' Fighting ' ' Joe Hooker was given command, and 
the Union army rested and , 

was reenforced. 

UPROOTING SLAVERY 

469. Slavery in the war. 

Lincoln had always been 
against slavery. He did not 
hate the slaveholder, but he 
did hate the rule of one man 
over another. 

When slaves escaped within 
the Federal lines. General 
Butler called them "contra- 
band of war," that is, prop- 
erty which may lawfully be 
taken in war. Others refused to return the negroes to 
their owners. Some Union generals set them free, but 
Lincoln refused to permit this. He wanted the Union slave 
states to free their own slaves and to receive pay for them. 

470. Congress runs ahead of the President on slavery. 
Early in the war Congress freed the slaves in the District 
of Columbia and in the territories. Congress paid slave- 
holders in the District but not those in the territories. 

471. The Emancipation Proclamation (1862). Repeat- 
edly Lincoln had denied his right to interfere with slavery 
in the states where it existed. Hence he early tried to 
get the border slave states in the Union to abolish slavery. 
He promised to pay owners for their slaves. He was 
sure this would be a blow from which the Confederates 
could not recover. The border states did not agree with 
him, and he had to face emancipation by his own hand. 



300 THE CIVIL WAR 

He had to act. The North was making little headway 
against the Confederacy. The cost of lives was running 
into thousands, and the debt into milHons. Englishmen 
were suffering for want of cotton, and their government 
might recognize the Confederacy as an independent 
nation. But did Lincoln have the right to free the slaves 
in the Confederate states? 

As commander-in-chief of the army and navy (Art. 
II, §2, ^i), he believed he could do anything in reason 
to weaken the Confederate cause. Emancipation, there- 
fore, was a war act, and could not have been carried 
out in time of peace. 

472. Reads Proclamation to cabinet. In July, before 
his assembled cabinet, Lincoln read the Proclamation of 
Emancipation. He told them his mind was made up. 
He finally put the Proclamation aside to await a Union 
victory. The battle of Antietam came (September 17), 
and Lincoln sent forth a warning proclamation^'^'' that if 
the Confederate armies had not laid down their arms by 
January i, 1863, he would declare their slaves free. This 
was regarded in the South as an empty threat, but he 
issued the Proclamation on the day named (January i, 
1863). 

473. Not all slaves set free by the Proclamation. The 
Proclamation did not touch a single slave in the Union 
slave states nor in those states or parts of states recap- 
tured by the Federal armies. Lincoln had not the power 
to go farther. Certain of these states — -Maryland, Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri — did finally take steps to 
abolish slavery. Only by amendment to the Constitution 
could Congress and the people abolish it by national 
action. To settle the question forever, the Thirteenth 
Amendment was added to the Constitution (1865) (§266). 



DECISIVE BATTLES 



301 



474. Effect of emancipation. The Confederacy rather 
made sport of the Proclamation, but Davis denounced it. 
The southern sympathizers in the North used strong lan- 
guage in attacking it. They declared it was proof posi- 
tive that the purpose of the war was to free the slaves and 
not to save the Union. The Proclamation was hailed 
with delight by our friends in England. 

475. The negro soldier. Shall the negro be used as a 
soldier? The North said "Yes," but the South said 
"No." But there were thousands of northern people 
who were opposed to the negro's carrying a gun. They 
argued, with the southerners, that it was wrong for him 
to shoot down a white man. Over 180,000 negroes wore 
the Union uniform. As a rule they were put to work 
that required no fighting. Just before the war closed, 
the Confederate authorities were getting ready to use 
negroes as soldiers. 

DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WAR 

476. Chancellorsville and the 
death of Jackson ( 1 863 ) . Hooker 
crossed the Rappahannock and 
struck Lee's army at Chancel- 
lorsville (May). Ahhough his 
army outnumbered the Confed- 
erates almost two to one, he 
permitted Jackson to make one 
of his lightning-like marches and 
rout his right wing. This was 
a terrific battle — in all there 
were over 3 o , 000 men lost . The loss of Stonewall Jackson , 
probably shot by some one on his own side, could not be 
made good by the Confederacy. 1^1 




THOMAS JONATHAN ("STONE- 
WALL") JACKSON 



302 



THE CIVIL WAR 



477. The Gettysburg campaign (1863). Stirred by 
Lee's victories, the South called upon him to carry the 
war into the North. He gathered the best army that ever 
marched under the "Stars and Bars," over 70,000 strong. 
He headed for Gettysburg. The North was in terror. 
Lincoln called for 100,000 militia. 

As the Army of the Potomac, 90,000 strong, was hasten- 
ing to head off Lee, General 
Meade was given command 
and Hooker was removed. 
The armies met at Gett^^s- 
burg, the Confederates on 
Seminary Ridge, and the Fed- 
erals on Cemetery Ridge. For 
two days they fought without 
either side winning. Every- 
body expected the third day 
to end the battle. 

478. Pickett's charge. 
Hidden from view by the for- 
est on the slopes of Seminary 
Ridge, General Lee on July 3 massed the flower of his 
army. He was to make a last desperate assault upon 
the Union center. At midday Lee tried for two hours to 
silence Meade's guns by artillery fire. As the clouds of 
smoke rolled away, 15,000 Confederates, formed like a 
great wedge and led by General Pickett, moved across 
the valley. 

Nearly a mile away General Hancock's men lay watch- 
ing the onrushing lines of gray. Half the distance was 
passed when the Union artillery blazed forth. Great 
holes were torn in the Confederate ranks. They never 
faltered, but closed up and kept right on. The long line 




GEORGE G. MEADE 



DECISIVE BATTLES 



303 



of Union rifles now sent forth their rain of death. The 
ranks of the Confederates grew thin. But on they came. 
General Armistead broke through Hancock's line and fell, 
waving his hat on the point of his sword. A hand-to- 
hand struggle! The Union troops dashed forward, and 
Pickett sounded "retreat." High tide at Gettysburg i*^'' 
had been reached. 




PICKETT S CHARGE 



479. The results. Lee's invasion had failed. Nearly 
40,000 dead or wounded lay upon the field. The Union 
army was so crippled that it did not attack as Lee crossed 
the Potomac. The awful losses suffered by Lee's army 
were hard to make up. Lincoln was sorely disappointed 
that Meade did not attack before Lee crossed the river, 
and end the war in a crushing victory. We must now 
turn to the campaign for the Mississippi. 

480. The campaign for Vicksburg (1863). General 
Grant late in 1862 prepared to capture Vicksburg. This 



304 



THE CIVIL WAR 




city had been well fortified to protect the streams of food 
that crossed the Mississippi for the Confederate armies. 

Grant drove General 
Pemberton into Vicksburg 
by a series of brilliant 
dashes. General Sheridan 
was Grant's right-hand 
man in this siege, which 
was pressed with great 
vigor. 

Day and night the two 
armies bombarded each 
other. Sharpshooters 
picked off the unlucky 
man who showed his head 
above the breastworks. 
While resting from fight- 
ing, sometimes Federals and Confederates joked eac.h 
other and traded things dear to the heart of a soldier. 

The houses of the city were torn with shot and shell 
until people had to dig caves to hide in. Food began to 
fail and mule meat became a luxury. Both day and 
night the people were kept in terror by the noise of can- 
non, the bursting of shells, and the explosion of mines. 
The citizens of Vicksburg as well as the soldiers were 
desperate. They sent up a white flag on July 4. The 
surrender took place one day after the Union victory 
at Gettysburg. How the North rejoiced! These two 
victories produced a great effect on public sentiment 
throughout Europe. 

A few days afterward (July 9) Port Hudson surrendered 
to General Banks, and as the great President remarked : 
"The Father of Waters again goes un vexed to_the sea." 



CAMPAIGN AROUND VICKSBURG 



THE WAR AND POLITICS 305 

481. The battles around Chattanooga (1863). Rose- 
crans had driven the Confederates under Bragg out of 
Chattanooga. Bragg (§465), reenforced by Longstreet, 
struck the Union army at Chickamauga and sent it reehng 
into Chattanooga. But General Thomas held the Union 
left wing and saved the army from greater defeat (§465). 
The soldiers ever after called Thomas the "Rock of 
Chickamauga." 

Bragg occupied the heights of Lookout Mountain and 
Missionary Ridge. Rosecrans was besieged. The North 
was alarmed. Lincoln ordered Grant, Sherman, and 
Hooker to relieve Rosecrans. Grant established a new 
"cracker" line for supplies. The Union forces stormed 
Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge and drove the 
Confederates into Georgia. Bragg turned over his com- 
mand to Johnston ( §466) . Grant had won another cam- 
paign for the Union. 

THE WAR AND POLITICS 

482. The change in public opinion. With the first cry 
of war both North and South seemed to be as one man 
for the Union or for secession. War was forced upon the 
South. This fact compelled men to unite. Public 
opinion would not permit southern opposition to the war 
except in the mountains (§455). 

Some faultfinding arose because Davis took too much 
power into his hands. Neither his cabinet nor his Con- 
gress was made up of great men. The ablest men of the 
South were her military leaders. When the Confederacy 
began to fail, the blame fell almost entirely upon Davis. 

After the death of Douglas, when it had become clearer 
that the war would be long and hard, people in the North 
began to take sides on different questions. The result 



3o6 THE CIVIL WAR 

was a Union party and a Peace party. The Republicans 
and the "War Democrats" were for the Union. The 
persons for peace tried to hold on to the Democratic name. 
They often opposed measures for carrying on the war. 

After emancipation, Lincoln's enemies grew in number. 
Elections in the fall showed that the Democrats came 
near having a majority in the state governments and in 
Congress. 

483. Vigorous opposition to the war. The draft riots. 
Many people who were born in the South lived in the 
North. It was natural for many of them to oppose the 
war. But others disapproved the "high-handed" means 
taken by Lincoln to suppress southern resistance. On 
the "stump," in the newspapers, and in Congress itself, 
the opponents of Lincoln werq loud in faultfinding. They 
formed secret organizations in the northern border states 
to free the Confederate prisoners and to compel the 
government to make peace with the Confederacy. The 
government arrested the ringleaders and threw them into 
prison. 1''^ 

All over the country there was opposition to the draft. 
It was very pronounced in New York City. The mob 
stopped the draft, burned houses, and killed many per- 
sons. It seemed very angry with negroes. This was 
the more dangerous since it took place when Meade and 
Lee were in their death-grapple at Gettysburg. United 
States troops had to be called in. The riot was sup- 
pressed, and the draft went on. 

484. Lincoln, the president (1864). Lincoln was the 
most beloved president we ever had. The men who 
hated him did not know him. No president ever wrote 
so tenderly to people in distress, or sent messages to 
Congress breathing such pure and hopeful patriotism. 



THE WAR AND POLITICS 307 

All people who came to talk to him, whether high or low, 
rich or poor,' happy or distressed, saw him. No one ever 
turned a more sympathetic ear to the soldier in distress, 
or to the broken-hearted mother appealing for the pardon 
of her son sentenced to be shot. He set aside a part of 
his time to visit with the wounded Federals and Confed- 
erates in Washington hospitals.'"^ 

He was misunderstood because he was not severe in 
his dealings with men at such a time as this. Instead, no 
matter how solemn the occasion, he always had a funny 
story to relieve the strain. He gave Horace Greeley, 
editor of the New York Tribune, an important mission 
when Greeley was heaping blame upon him. When one 
of his cabinet was trying to defeat him for nomination 
for the presidency, he appointed him chief justice. He bore 
patiently the insults of another member because he was 
a tireless worker for the Union. Lincoln was a good man. 

485. Reelected president (1864). Dissatisfied Repub- 
licans opposed to Lincoln could not agree on a man for 
president. The Peace Democrats nominated McClellan 
(§458), but he rejected their platform, for it declared the 
war a failure. At first the campaign seemed to be going 
against Lincoln. How could the Union be saved if he 
were defeated ? Fortunately, a number of great victories 
came just before the election. Besides, the people 
were convinced that Davis demanded the independence 
of the Confederacy as the price of peace. Lincoln carried 
the people's vote by more than 400,000. This was the 
largest majority yet given a president. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 213-228; 
Morse, Lincoln ("American Statesmen Series"), I, 248-387; II, 1-30, 
95-367; Fiske, Mississippi Valley in the Civil War, 1-5, 52-56; Grant, 



3o8 THE CIVIL WAR 

Memoirs, I, 294-584; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 216-282; Rhodes, 
History of the United States, III, chaps, xiv-xvi; Grant, Memoirs, 
I, 294-315, 353-356, 437-584; 11, 31-38- 

References for pupils: Coffin, Drum Beat of the Nation, 48-414; 
Coffin, Marching to Victory, 16-455; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 286- 
307, (Lincoln, Lee, and Grant); Mace, Lincoln, 136-179; Mabie, 
Heroes Every Child Should Know, 289-308; Hart, Source Book, 299- 
327; Hart, Romance of the Civil War, 75-175, 200-418; Barstow, The 
Civil War, 3-1 17; ChampHn, Young Folks' History, 50-403; Eggleston, 
Household History, 311-329. 

Fiction: Kerbey, The Boy Spy. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Describe the scenes in Fort Sumter and the scenes in Charleston 
at the time of the surrender. 2. When Sumter falls you go with 
Douglas to call on the President. Write what they probably said. 
3. Go from New York with the "Monitor" to Hampton Roads. 
Write about its battle with the " Merrimac." 4. Visit a hospital 
with Lincoln and tell of his conversation with the boys. 5. You 
are a Confederate soldier in Pickett's great charge. You get back 
safe. Write what you think. 



CHAPTER XIX 



THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 

THE CONFEDERACY GRADUALLY WEARING OUT 

486. Grant the Union head (1864). Lincoln had a 
long, hard search for a leader for his army. The Con- 
federacy had a leader from 
the beginning-. After 
Chattanooga, Lincoln 
made Grant ^"^ lieutenant- 
general in charge of the 
Union armies. 

With an army of 120,000 
men the new general 
plunged into the Wil- 
derness, where he met Lee 
with an army only half as 
large. Grant made no 
headway and decided upon 
a flank movement to the 
left. But Lee faced him at 
Spottsylvania. Hard fighting again took place. Another 
flanking movement to the left, but there was Lee again 
at Cold Harbor! Grant ordered a direct assault. The 
North shuddered when it heard his loss. 

Lee's works proved too strong, and Grant moved to the 
left, crossed the James, and began the siege of Petersburg. 
In less than eight weeks the Union loss was 50,000! Lee 
had lost 20,000, but his ranks could hardly be fllled again. 
The Confederacy now had only boys and old men left. 




ULYSSES S. GRANT 



309 



310 



THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 




■HFRID\N S RIDE AT C=-D\R CREEK 



487. In the Shenandoah (1864). To break Grant's 
grip, Lee sent Early by way of the Shenandoah against 
Washington. The North was in terror until Grant sent 

reenforcements. Ear- 
ly retreated, carrying 
food for Lee's army. 
Grant Ordered Gen- 
eral Sheridan to the 
Shenandoah with dou- 
ble the force Early 
had. Sheridan suc- 
ceeded in defeating the 
Confederates in two 
battles, Winchester 
and Cedar Creek. At 

Cedar Creek, Sheridan saved the day only by riding from 

Winchester, where he had spent the night, to rally his 

retreating men. 

Sheridan now began the work of destruction, making 

the Shenandoah impossible as a granary for Lee's army. 

488. The Hampton Roads Conference (1865). The 
Union victories in the fall of 1864 made everyone hope 
for early peace. Friends on both sides persuaded Lincoln 
and Davis to send commissioners to Hampton Roads for 
a meeting to talk over plans of peace. Lincoln went and 
Hkewise Vice-President Stephens of the Confederacy. 
Lincoln's terms were: (i) the Confederacy to lay down 
its arms and submit to the Union; (2) to accept eman- 
cipation. Davis stood for one thing: the independence 
of the Confederacy. This Lincoln refused, but promised 
to try to obtain the consent of Congress to pay for the 
slaves. Had Davis been less determined, some agreement 
to Lincoln's terms might have been made. We can now 



THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 



311 



see what might have been saved: the assassination of 
Lincoln and the dark days of reconstruction! 

489. The campaign for Atlanta (1864). To Sherman 
fell the task of capturing Atlanta. It was an important 
railroad center with great factories. 

When Grant moved on Lee, Sherman moved against 
Johnston at Dalton, Georgia. By repeated flanking 
movements backed by bold fighting, Johnston was forced, 
in two months, south to Kenesaw Mountain. Here 
Sherman tried a direct assault, but, like Grant's (§486), 
it failed. Johnston retreated skillfully, as Lee had done. 




GULF OF MEXICO 



THE GEORGIA CAMPAIGN AND THE RED RIVER EXPEDITION 

Sherman'*^** was now within a few miles of Atlanta. The 
South was getting nervous, and Davis removed Johnston'**^ 
and put Hood in his place. Hood was a fighter. Battle 



312 



THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 




after battle followed, until Hood was driven into Atlanta. 
To escape a long siege, he blew up his powder magazines 

and left Atlanta (Sep- 
tember 2). 

490. Farragut captures 
Mobile Bay (1864). In the 
meantime Mobile Bay had 
been captured. Blockade 
runners had found Mobile 
Bay a good place. From 
this point the Confederacy 
got European and other 
supplies. It was strongly 
fortified, and guarded by a 
monster ironclad, the 
"Tennessee." 

Farragut (§464) lashed 
his boats together two and two, and tied himself to the 
rigging of his ship. Here he directed the battle amid 
a storm of shot and shell from the Confederate batteries. 
It was terrific but short. He got past the forts with the 
loss of one vessel, but the Confederates lost their entire 
fleet. Breaking up blockade running here, together with 
the fall of Atlanta, was like cutting a main artery of the 
Confederacy. 

491. The blockade tightens. The Confederate navy 
destroyed. Day by day, the blockade grew tighter. Only 
a few ships on the darkest nights dared steal in and out. 
The prices of things rose very high in the Confederacy. 
Everything made of iron grew very dear. Things to 
eat and wear were very scarce and unbelievably high. 
The Confederate soldiers were not well fed nor well 
clothed. 



DAVID GLASCO'V FARRA' UT 



THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 



3^3 



492. Confederate privateers. Early in the war, the 
most famous cruiser for the Confederates was the ' ' Sum- 




THE "KEARS\RGE" sinks THE "ALABAMA' 



ter." She destroyed property right and left until she 
was captured. The "Florida" built in England for the 
Confederacy, was early captured. The "Alabama" was 
the "terror of the seas." She was built at Liverpool and 
destroyed over sixty merchant ships. She was sunk by the 
"Kearsarge" off the French coast (June, 1864). Another 
Confederate cruiser, the "Shenandoah," escaped into the 
Pacific and kept up her work until the end of the war. 

493. From Atlanta to the sea. Thomas at Franklin 
(1865). With 60,000 veterans Sherman swept from 
Atlanta to the sea. He sent Lincoln this telegram: "A 
Christmas gift of the city of Savannah!" The destruc- 
tion of property on this march caused deep hatred in the 
Confederacy. 

Hood struck at Sherman's line of supplies, but Sherman 
did not stop, for he had sent Thomas'*^** with another 



314 



THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 



60,000 veterans after this Confederate general. Hood 
attacked with great fury Schofield's division, a part of 
Thomas' army, at Franklin, but failed. When all was 
ready Thomas dealt Hood a terrific blow at Nashville 
(December 15 and 16). His army went reeling south- 
ward. Hood resigned. Only 19,000 men were left to 
join their old commander, Johnston, in North Carolina. 

494. Sherman turns north (1865). Sherman started 
northward in February. Unfortunately Columbia, 
South Carolina, was burned. Charleston soon fell. Fort 
Sumter had been battered to pieces (1863). Sherman 
met Johnston, whose army was too small to fight much. 



j^^, '\^^^^^^ 




^HERMAN'S RAIDERb \7 WORK 

Finally Sherman marched to Goldsboro and rested. A 
month later came the welcome news that Lee had sur- 
rendered. 
495. The capital of the Confederacy falls (1865). 

Early in the year Sheridan had cut Lee's Hues of connec- 
tion to the westward. He then moved around and 
extended Grant's line farther southward. He finally 
seized Five Points, thus cutting off Lee's suppHes. 



THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 



315 




LEE AFTER THE SURRENDER 



Davis was at church. A messenger gave him Lee's 
dispatch. He left silently. The end had come. Men 
were hurry- -^, ^ 

ing to and 
fro with pa- 
pers and rec- 
ords of the 
Confeder- 
acy. Soldiers 
and citizens 
were busy 
carrying 
away some 
stores and 
destroying 
others.. In 

the confusion, fires were started. Lee's soldiers left that 
night, and in the morning Grant's came in. Richmond 
had fallen. The Union troops put out the fire. 

496. The surrender at Appomattox (April 9, 1865). 
Lee had intended to take his army by way of Danville 
and unite with Johnston in North Carolina. The Con- 
federates reached Appomattox, but saw the Union troops 
everywhere. Lee's army had been cut down almost half 
(§486), and further fighting was useless. 

Lee and Grant held a meeting and arranged the terms 
of surrender. They could hardly have been more gener- 
ous. The Confederate soldiers were to go to their homes 
and not engage in the war again. They were to take 
their horses with them. "They will need them in the 
spring for plowing and farm work," said Grant. Lee's 
officers and men crowded around him. The men took 
off their hats. Lee simply said:- "We have fought 



3i6 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 

through the war together. I have done my best for you. 
My heart is too full to say more." 

497. Closing out the Confederacy. Grant and his 
officers went back to their men and gave orders not to 
cheer nor fire cannon over the great event. It was hard 
for his men to obey this command, for however much 
sympathy they might feel for Lee's men, their hearts 
were full of rejoicing over the saving of the Union. 

Johnston surrendered to Sherman, April 26. Taylor, 
who commanded in Alabama and Mississippi, gave up 
May 24, and Kirby Smith, who was in charge west of the 
Mississippi, May 26. Davis, who was trying to reach 
Smith, was captured at Irwinville, Georgia. 

Northern men talked about arresting some of the Con- 
federate officers, but Grant refused to permit any man who 
had surrendered to be touched. President Davis was a 
civil officer and was imprisoned, but was bailed out of 
prison by Horace Greeley and other northern men. 

498. The assassination of Lincoln (April 14, 1865). 
Lincoln was happy. He went to Richmond to see the city 
that had given him so many anxious hours. He returned 
and told some friends that he hoped that there would be 
no persecution, no bloodshed after the war was over. 
"No one," he said, "need expect me to take any part in 
hanging or killing those men." Of all northern men, he 
best understood the South. 

Lincoln went to Ford's theater that fateful night. 
Suddenly John Wilkes Booth, a half-crazy actor, shot him. 
He died next morning. Booth escaped, but was caught 
and shot. Persons in the plot aimed to kill Seward and 
others, but their plans failed. Some of the plotters were 
hanged, and others were put in prison for life. 

A wave of sorrow swept over the North. Men had come 



EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 317 

to love that great, homely, kindly face. The common folk 
almost worshiped Lincoln. Many of them broke down 
and cried when the news came. He died as he lived, 
"with malice toward none, with charity for all." 

499. The soldiers return (1865). It was a happy 
thought that brought as many soldiers as possible to 
Washington for a last review. For two days the veterans 
paraded through the broad streets of the capital. They 
missed the kindly leader and friend whom they all loved. 
But other great men were there to review and to cheer 
them, it was a grand spectacle. The last roll was 
called, the last banner furled, and the war-scarred veteran 
returned to receive the welcome of waiting loved ones at 
home. But there were hearts among those waiting that 
could not rejoice; thousands of fathers, sons, or sweet- 
hearts were sleeping in southern soil. 

But there was another scene. For the southern soldiers 
there was no such stately parade. They bade old" com- 
rades a hearty good-by. One by one, or in little bands, 
they made their slow journey home. Their hearts were 
sad. They had lost. But more than all, their homes were 
in ruins and their loved ones in poverty. But they were 
glad to be home again with father and mother or with 
wife and children. 

THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 

500. What the war cost in life. No one can tell the 
full story of the suffering during this conflict. What a 
frightful thing it would be to know what the sick suffered, 
what torture the wounded bore with little to make the 
pain less! At least 500,000 soldiers died. Think of the 
men crippled for life, the number whose lives were made 
shorter by disease or exposure! We do not often think 



3i8 



THE END OF THE vSTRUGGLE 




of the suffering of the loved ones who stayed at home, 
and of the widows and orphans made by the war. 

Nearly all southern 
men of military age 
went to war. That 
so large a number 
were able to go was 
due to the fact that 
the slave stayed at 

^ home, raised the 

SANITARY COMMISSION HE'iDQu\RTERb croos, and csiTQd. for 

the women and old men on the plantations. The draft 
came a bit earlier in the South than in the North (§483)- 
In the two armies almost twice as many men died from 
disease as were killed in battle l^''^ 

501. Sanitary and Christian commissions. In the 
North kind-hearted people were prompt to go to the reHef 
of the soldier. The Sanitary Commission tried to care for 
the men's bodies. It aided the government in many ways. 
It furnished doctors, medicines, bandages, and nurses for 
the sick and wounded. Its hospitals, cars, and tents 
moved as the army moved. The money for this came 
from rich people and from great fairs held in the big cities. 
The Christian Commission looked after the moral and 
religious welfare of the soldiers. Ministers of all denomi- 
nations were enrolled as chaplains. They held religious 
meetings, talked with dying soldiers, and often wrote 
the soldier's last message to loved ones in the old home. 
They also furnished papers, magazines, and books for the 
boys to read. In every way the chaplain tried to keep 
up the moral tone of the army. It was the faith and 
work of the mothers, sisters, and sweethearts that kept 
the armies of the North well cared for and hopeful. 




EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 319 

502. The Confederacy worn out. The Confederate 
soldier was in a very different situation. He often 
marched and fought in 
the last days of the war 
without good shoes, 
without enough cloth- 
ing and at times without 
much food. It was no 
fault of the noble women 
who sacrificed for him, 
sending clothing, band- 
ages, and medicines. 
The country was being ""'" ""'"^ 

1 ,.,,,,, , , A CONFEDERATE HOSPITAL 

choked to death by the 

blockade. This fate was overtaking them in spite of 

their struggles, their prayers, and tears. 

In the spring of 1862 the government was forced to 
draft men ; in 1865 old men and boys were sent to the front. 
The slave raised food for the army and served in many 
places; he was servant to the officers, cook, teamster, 
and laborer on the forts. In the last days, when the 
man-power of the Confederacy was at an end. General 
Lee favored arming the slaves, but it was too near the end. 

The women of the Confederacy had to get out the 
spinning wheels and hand looms of their grandmothers. 
Homemade clothes were worn, for manufactured goods 
were too scarce or too dear. Newspapers were printed on 
wall paper. Many families, both South and North, were 
compelled to use parched grains instead of coffee. The 
Confederacy felt the pinch of poverty. 

503. What the war cost in loss of property. It is hard 
to measure the loss of property. Millions upon millions 
of dollars were used up in the wearing out of clothes, 



320 



THE END OP THE vSTRUGGLE 



guns, powder, shot and shell, wagons, horses, mules, cars, 
engines, and iron rails. Even wooden rails torn from 
fences around farms were used for fuel in camps and for 
cooking. Houses were destroyed, barns burned, cattle 
and hogs killed, cities were set on fire and partly burned. 
This was war. But it seems tame when compared with 
the destruction of the World War just closed (1918). 




H^' (111 PI IP ri 








A SOUTHERN PLANTER S DESERTED HOME 



The South suffered most, the border slave states next, 
the border free states less, and the other northern states 
but little. 

The most extensive raid into the North was made by 
General John Morgan (1863).™ He crossed into Indiana 
with a few hundred men, and dashed into Ohio, where he 
was captured. Aside from horses and food taken, he 
destroyed httle. 

504. A ruined planter and plantation. No person 
suffered more than the planter. He rode to battle full 
of hope. He returned in despair. The cause of the Con- 
federacy was lost. His field laborers and his house serv- 
ants had been set free. This alone cost the slaveholders 
$2,000,000,000. His plantation was in ruins. He was 



EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 321 

not used to laboring in the field, nor were his wife and 
daughters used to doing work in the household. 

Things had changed. He must start at the bottom. 
If his buildings and tools and fences had escaped destruc- 
tion, they were out of repair. Horses and mules were 
worn out or had been taken by the armies as they swept 
by. His cows and sheep and droves of hogs had been 
used to feed the army. The blockade had lowered 
the price of all he had to sell, and raised the price of all 
he had to buy. His money was worthless. His own 
slave, who had been a soldier and had saved his money, 
might now want to buy a part of the old plantation. 

505. What the war did for the North. When we think 
of the destruction at the South, we can say that the North 
hardly knew what war meant. But in every village and 
city in the North there was the recruiting camp. Mothers, 
wives, daughters, and sweethearts wept as the soldiers 
went marching away with flags flying and drums beating. 

After great battles, crowds gathered to hear some man 
with a good voice read the news. Maybe later they read 
the long Hsts of dead and wounded to see if the name of 
some loved one might be there ! Perhaps they did honor 
to a great hero brought home to be buried! There were 
flowers, the long roll, and the solemn sound of fife and 
drum as they carried him to his last resting-place ! There 
appeared wounded and crippled soldiers to remind people 
of war. Heavier taxes and the drafting of men brought 
the conflict nearer home. 

But the North did not feel the tramp of marching 
armies and the destruction of home and growing crops. 
With the exception of Gettysburg no great battles were 
fought on northern soil. But, on the contrary, wages 
begin to rise because laborers had to be taken for the war. 

12 



322 



THE END OP THE STRUGGLE 




SALMON P. CHASE 



The government called for great quantities of clothes for 
soldier and sailor, and for guns and ammunition. This 
gave a great "boom" to man- 
ufacturing. To the northern 
farmer came a quick and power- 
ful call for more food. But the 
farmer's sons had gone to war. 
He had to send in a call for 
more machinery. Many new 
machines were invented. The 
farmer had to raise hogs, sheep, 
cattle, horses, and mules for 
the army. Every line of busi- 
ness was prosperous. 

506. A new kind of bank 
(1863). Ever since Jackson 
destroyed the United States bank (§359) banking business 
had been turned over to state banks. These banks issued 
paper money, some bad, some good. 

During the war Secretary Chase (§426) suggested a 
new plan by which the paper money of the new banks did 
not change value as much as the old did. According to 
this plan each bank had to own a given amount of United 
States bonds. The banks could then issue paper money 
equal to 90 per cent of the bonds. Thus the government 
pledged itself to stand behind the banks' paper money. 
It made the money as good as the bonds. If the state 
banks wished the nation to get behind their paper 
money, they must become national banks. 

507. Raising money for the war. It was the business 
of Congress to get the money to carry on the war. It did 
this in three ways: (i) By taxes. Congress increased 
old taxes and put on new ones. The tariff had been the 
common way of getting most of our taxes. The new tax 



NEW STATES 323 

on imported goods was called the "war tariff." Another 
new tax was the land tax and a tax on incomes of $800 
or more. Finally, Congress raised money by means of 
an internal revenue. This was mainly a tax on liquors 
(§285). 

(2) By issuing bonds. It soon turned out that the taxes 
were not enough to pay for a war costing $2,000,000 per 
day. By means of bonds the government borrowed 
money from the people. But in the end the people have 
to pay for the bonds by taxes. These bonds were promises 
to pay, at an interest of from 6 per cent to 9 per cent. 
About $1,000,000,000 came into the treasury in this way. 

(3) By issuing paper money. But taxes and bonds 
were not enough. The government issued notes, called 
"greenbacks" because the back of the notes was often 
green. When the Confederates won victories, this paper 
money fell in value. When Union victories came, it rose 
in value. The same was true of Confederate paper money. 

The cost of the war reached nearly $3,000,000,000. 
To this great sum ought to be added the enormous 
amount paid for pensions. When we add the large sums 
paid by states, cities, towns, and by persons, the war cost 
probably reached from six to eight billions. 

STATES ADMITTED THROUGH STRESS OF WAR AND POLITICS 

508. Kansas (1861). Kansas was under the control of 
Spain, France, Spain again (1763), and France again 
when Napoleon's star was rising. He sold it to America 
as a part of Louisiana (1803). Now came the explorers: 
Lewis and Clark (1804), Pike (1806), Long, who followed 
the Santa Fe Trail, and Fremont (1842), who blazed the 
way to Oregon and California. Kansas was made part of 
Indian Territory (1833-54). The moment the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill was passed Kansas became a bone of con- 



324 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 

tention between the North and South. Much of her his- 
tory has been told (§§432-33). It is claimed that Kansas 
sent a larger percentage of soldiers to the Civil War than 
any other state. One of the most interesting industrial 
experiments is Governor Allen's court for settling strikes 
(1920). Kansas, called the Sunflower state, is a wonder- 
ful agricultural country. 

509. West Virginia (1863). West Virginia, once a 
part of the Old Dominion, was largely settled by Scotch- 
Irish (§110). Much of its history has already been told 
(§455). The war for the Union found the people of the 
mountains strong for the Union, although many persons 
joined the Confederacy and fought in its armies. Stone- 
wall Jackson, the great soldier, was born in this state. 
Since the war there has been a wonderful development in 
the production of coal, natural gas, and petroleum. In 
the amount of coal mined it stands second in the Union. 
For several years it has ranked first in natural gas. West 
Virginia produced nearly a billion and a half dollars' worth 
of lumber in 1910. As a result she has increased in 
population more than 25 per cent each year since 1890. 

510. Nevada (1864). The state of Nevada was in 
reahty born out of conditions created by the Civil War. 
Its name in Spanish means the "sage-brush" or "snow- 
covered" state. Nevada is sixth in area among the states, 
but is the smallest in population. Between 1775 and 1845 
it had been seen by various white men. Fremont saw it 
in three different years and gave the names Pyramid 
Lake, Lake Tahoe, and the Humboldt and Truckee rivers. 
It was first settled at Genoa (1849). In this year gold 
was first discovered. Ten years later the wonderful 
"Comstock Lode" was opened, the richest gold mine 
ever found. The rush of miners now set in, and a terri- 
torial government was organized (1857). Nevada became 



EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 32$ 

a state after telegraphing her Constitution to Washington 
City. Lincoln needed her vote to carry the Thirteenth 
Amendment. 

511. Colorado (1876). The "Centennial State" was 
first visited, it is claimed, by the expeditions of De Soto 
and Coronado. These were the first to see the homes of 
the cliff-dwellers. Spain and France traded this region 
back and forth till a part fell to the United States in the 
Louisiana Purchase. Mexico also claimed a part which 
she ceded to the United States by treaty (1848). The 
American explorers to visit Colorado were Pike, Long, and 
Fremont. The discovery of gold near Boulder (1858) and 
Idaho Springs (1859) was the signal for a rush of people 
to Colorado. The names of Leadville, Cripple Creek, 
Ouray, and Silverton suggest that Colorado leads in the 
output of precious metals. Colorado organized as the 
Territory of Jefferson (1859) and ran without the aid of 
the national government till 1861. The political situa- 
tion forced the Republicans to admit the state in 1876. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 232-238, 
244-252; Morse, Abraham Lincoln ("American Statesmen Series"), 
II, 1-30, 95-133, 13s to end; Grant, Memoirs, II, 31-38, 158-307, 
344-386, 454-512; Paxson, Civil War, 86-90, 101-112, 144-158, 171- 
189, 204-247; Bassett, Short History, chaps, xxvi, xxvii; Hosmer, 
Outcome of the War, chaps, vii-x, xiii, xiv; Hart, Contemporaries IV, 
chaps, xiii-xvii. 

References for pupils: Coffin, Redeeming the Republic, 67-312, 335- 
446; Coffin, Freedom Triumphant, 79-160, 327-338, 415-444, 454- 
470, 471-486; Mace, Lincoln, 175-186; Hart, Source Book, 329-339; 
'iiaxt, Source Reader, IV, Nos. 18-26,62-98; Barstow, C/z)z7 War, 120- 
220; Solig, Sailor Boys of '61. 

Fiction: Colhngwood, Blue and Grey; Cooke, Mohun; Goss, Jed. 
SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Write a letter home from the Wilderness campaign. 2. You 
are a Union spy. Report to General Grant what you saw in Rich- 
mond just before the surrender. 3. Visit a negro in Georgia and 
listen to his reasons for remaining faithful to his " missus." 4. Re- 
port Sherman's march to the sea. 5. You are in Washington at the 
" Grand Review." How do you feel? 



CHAPTER XX 



RECONSTRUCTION OF THE STATE 

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS 

512. Lincoln's and Johnson's plan. Lincoln was gen- 
erous toward the South and had declared that no state 
can go out of the Union (§451). He said the Confederate 
states had tried to secede but had failed. Lincoln thought 
that the easiest way was best. Just as soon, therefore, 
as the Federal armies had overrun a state, he sent forth 
an "Amnesty Proclamation." This, with few excep- 
tions, gave pardon to those taking an oath to support 
and defend the Constitution, the laws of Congress, and 
the Emancipation Proclamation. Three states accepted 

Lincoln's plan and elected 
representatives to Congress. 
Congress refused to accept 
them, and sent Lincoln a 
plan of reconstruction. He 
did not agree to it (July, 
1864). 

\^ice-President Johnson 
was in harmony with Lin- 
coln's plan. But there is a 
great difference in men. 
Lincoln, with his wise, firm, 
but gentle way, might have 
won even that Congress to 
some such plan. Not so 
with Johnson. He was stubborn when once he had set 
his mind in a given way. Unfortunately for the nation, 
326 




ANDKEVV JOHNSON 



THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS 327 

Congress had in it a large number of men made bitter by 
the long struggle, who felt that southern leaders must be 
sternly dealt with. Among northern leaders were those 
who put no faith in the men that had taken the oath 
named by Lincoln. 

513. Beginning to differ about reconstruction (1865). 
While Congress was out of session, Johnson hurried on 
the work of reconstruction. He appointed governors for 
the southern states. These states made new constitu- 
tions and repealed the acts of secession (§445). They 
declared the slaves free and agreed not to pay one dollar 
of the Confederate debt. 

Congress felt that the negro must be protected. It 
did not know that his old master was, as a rule, his best 
friend. So Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill 
to protect the negro. The North saw in the laws bearing 
on negro labor, passed by these states, an attempt to turn 
the colored man back to a sort of slavery, i" The Repub- 
licans stood for the Freedmen's Bill, but Democrats were 
against it, and the President vetoed it. 

514. Battle between the President and Congress 
(1866-67). The battle was on between the President and 
Congress. In the other's eyes, neither could do any good 
thing. The President scolded Congress, and in like temper. 
Congress replied. The President vetoed every bill touching 
reconstruction Congress presented to him. Among these 
was the Civil Rights Bill. This measure made the negro 
a citizen. It gave him the same right as a white man to 
use the United States courts. To make these rights 
safe, they were put in the Fourteenth Amendment. 

In some of the northern states free negroes were per- 
mitted to vote. Lincoln had argued in favor of giving 
"the right to vote to the very intelligent, and especially 



328 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE STATE 

to those who have fought gallantly in the ranks." But 
Congress went much farther and voted to amend the 
Constitution by giving to the negro manhood suffrage 
(1870). This was the Fifteenth Amendment. 

515. Military rule in the South (1867). Congress now 
struck with a high hand. It divided the seceded states, 
Tennessee excepted, into five districts and placed over 
each a military governor appointed by the President. 
This meant that the governor was to carry out the orders 
of Congress. 

516. Impeachment of the President (1868). FeeHng 
was now running high in all parts of the country. The 
President had denounced Congress, and Congress had 
returned the compliment. The Republicans of the coun- 
try supported Congress, and the Democrats stood by 
Johnson. Congress forbade the President to turn men 
out of office without the consent of the Senate (Art. II, 
§2, ^2). It put General Grant in complete control over 
the army to keep the President from calling the troops 
out of the South. 

Johnson, in his wrath, turned Secretary of War Stanton 
out of office. Congress immediately impeached Johnson 
for "high crimes and misdemeanors" (Art. II, §4). 

The charges against Johnson were tried before the Sen- 
ate acting as a jury. The chief justice sat as presiding 
officer. People came from all parts of the country; they 
were eager to see the great trial and to hear the ablest 
lawyers in the country. For nearly eight weeks the trial 
went on. Finally the Senate voted thirty-five "guilty" 
and nineteen ' ' not guilty. ' ' The charges against Johnson "^ 
had failed! (Art. I, §3, ^6, 7.) 

517. Carpetbaggers and scalawags (1868-70). As a 
result of the situation, the negroes and their leaders had 



THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS 329 

obtained a majority of voters in several southern states. 
These leaders had come mainly from the North to make 
their fortunes. They kept about all their property in 
carpetbags (small handbags). Hence they were called 
"carpetbaggers." A few leaders were from the South; 
they were called "scalawags." These men very easily 
persuaded the negroes to elect them to office. 

518. Negro rule in the South. In the majority of the 
Confederate states negroes now took control. A strange 
body of men to make laws for states so broken by war! 
A few were intelligent because they had been the trusted 
servants of their masters. Others were ignorant field-hands 
who had spent their days toiling in tobacco, cotton, and 
rice fields. But all were ignorant of public business. 

How strange it all seemed to the old planters ! In these 
same halls they had heard the voices of Hayne and Cal- 
houn, or of Toombs and Stephens! If a white member 
rose to speak, he must address a former slave sitting in 
the speaker's chair. If he offered a resolution, he must 
hear it read to the legislature by a negro clerk. If he 
ser\'-ed on an important committee, its chairman and the 
majority of its members were negroes. 

While the legislature was debating a bill to raise money, 
the greatest excitement would occur. The speaker 
pounded his desk to keep order, still many persons were 
on their feet all trying to speak at the same time. The 
noise of loud talking and even of laughing went right on. 
Some members leaned back with their feet on their desks, 
smoking cigars or eating peanuts, while those who were to 
profit by the bill were busy trying to buy votes for it. 

519. What it meant to have negro rule, (i) At the 
very time when they were least able to meet them, the 
states were burdened with debts requiring years for their 



330 



RECONSTRUCTION OP THE STATE 



payment. (2) This new experience gave the negro a 
false notion of what he could do. It became so much 
harder for him to practice those homely virtues of hard 
work, thrift, and self-control. (3) It destroyed much of 
the friendly feeling existing between the white man and 
the negro, and produced years of suspicion and friction. 

520. How the South got rid of negro rule. How could 
the South get rid of these corrupt state governments? 




THE KU-KLUX KLAN MAKES 



Were the negro majorities not backed by the soldiers? 
The white citizens hit upon using the Ku-Klux Klan, a 
social secret society already in existence. The Klan arose 
in Tennessee and spread over the South. Its workings 
were mysterious. Its members went through strange 
performances. They had a ghostHke dress, and took mid- 
night rides" with horses covered often with white sheets. 
In the dead of night they suddenly appeared before the 
colored man's cabin. To the negroes they seemed to be 
the spirits of dead Confederates coming back to avenge 



THE PREvSIDENT AND CONGRESS 331 

their unhappy fate. If the bolder negroes and their white 
leaders gave no heed to warnings, they were whipped, 
driven away, and some of them murdered. 

521. Congress tries to protect the negro. We have 
already seen Congress pass the Fifteenth Amendment. 
This provided that no citizen should lose his vote "on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude" 
(Amendment XV). The majority in Congress, against 
great opposition, succeeded in passing two bills, called 
"Force Bills." These bills declared that anyone pre- 
venting the negro from voting, or his vote from being 
counted, should be fined and put in prison (1870-71). 

In 1872 Congress finally passed the Amnesty Act 
(§512), granting the right to vote to many ex-Confederates. 

SUGGESTED READINGS * 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 232-283; 
Lothrop, Seward ("American Statesmen Series"), 320-367; Grant, 
Memoirs, II, 31-38, 158-512; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 141-155, 
162, 259-263, 303-305, 412-500; Bassett, Short History, 594-626,640- 
644; McMaster, People of the United States, VIII, 192-339, 405-521; 
Schaff, The Sunset of the Confederacy; Haworth, Reconstruction, 1-85; 
Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War, 235-465; Trumbull, War 
Memories of a Chaplain. 

References for pupils: Coffin, Redeeming the Republic, 67-453; 
Coffin, Freedom Triumphant, 79-486; Mace, Lincoln, 179-186; Hart, 
Source Book, 299-349; Morgan, A Confederate GirVs Diary; Champlin, 
Young Folks' History of the War for the Union, 402-559; Eggleston, 
Household History, 329-354; Scoville, Brave Deeds of Union Soldiers. 
Fiction: Hale, Mrs. Merriam's Scholars; Page, Red Rock; Tourgee, 
FooVs Errand. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Resolved that Johnson's plan for reconstruction was better 
than the plan of Congress. 2. Describe a day's session of the legis- 
lature of South Carolina when the negroes controlled it. 3. As a 
small boy you used to hear your Uncle John who was a member of 
the Ku-Klux Klan tell of some of their doings. Describe them in a 
letter to a friend. 



CHAPTER XXI 
new' PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 

NEW QUESTIONS CAUSE NEW PARTIES 

522. Old and new parties (1872). The coming of war 
split parties (§§443-44), but when it ended there were but 
two great ones again. All men were either Democrats or 
Republicans. Some men liked to argue war questions. 
Others grew tired of them and of keeping alive the old 
war feelings. "^ These people called for a kindher feeling 
toward the South. They were named ' ' Liberal Repub- 
licans," and nominated Horace Greeley, editor of the 
New York Tribune, for president. 

The Democrats "threw up their hats" and nominated 
Greeley, too. But he had been too long opposed to the 
Democrats, so a few of them put up a "real Democrat." 
The Republicans nominated President Grant again. 

Other new questions were coming to the front. The 
Labor Party put up a ticket for the first time. They 
called for paper money, an eight-hour law, and were 
opposed to Chinese coming to this country. 

A national Prohibition party was now formed and a 
candidate nominated (1872). 

Grant's victory was overwhelming. Greeley carried 
only six states. ^^^ 

523. The panic of 1873.'" The war taught men new 
ways of doing business. They saw great armies sweeping 
over the country — the bigger, the more successful! Why 
cannot business imitate them? Railroads and other 
corporations tried this plan. Out West the railroads 

332 



NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 333 

were built faster than the people came. Great manufac- 
tories made more goods than the people could buy. 
Business was unsettled. 

The rich firm of Jay Cooke and Company failed. It 
could not pay its debts. People in New York grew 
excited. Crowds of yelling people filled the sidewalks of 
Wall Street. They swarmed into the basement, climbed 
over railings, and pushed past policemen into the offices of 
the doomed company. 

The whole country was now alarmed. "Runs" on 
banks took place everywhere. Over 10,000 business 
houses failed between 1873 and 1874. But the working 
man bore the worst of the suffering. 

524. Bad politics works against the Republicans. The 
Democrats were happy. The country was blaming the 
Republicans for the panic and for bad politics. The 
Whisky Ring had cheated the government out of large 
sums of money. The Tweed Ring^^'' was ruling the city 
of New York. One of President Grant's high officers was 
caught selling contracts in his own department, and was 
forced to resign. Congressmen were proved guilty of 
taking stock in a railroad to which Congress had voted 
large sums. Congress, near the end of its term, voted to 
increase the salaries of its own members from the beginning 
of the term. This was called, in politics, the "salary 
grab," and cost many a congressman his seat. 

Nearly all this corruption was laid at the Republicans' 
door. The result was that the Democrats carried the 
House of Representatives by a large majority for the first 
time since the war. 

525. Who is president, Hayes or Tilden (1876)? For 
the first time in our history. Congress could not tell who 
was elected president. The Democrats had gone into 



334 



NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 




RUTHERFORD 



this campaign full of hope. Their candidate was Samuel J. 
Tilden, the great lawyer who had broken up the Tweed 
Ring (§524). 

The Republicans had put 
forward General Hayes, three 
times governor of Ohio. A 
new party, the "Greenback," 
appeared and called on the 
government to put out more 
paper money so that the poor 
man might earn higher wages 
and pay his debts. 

Unfortunately both Hayes 
and' Tilden claimed to be elect- 
ed. Congress named an 
"Electoral Commission" of 
fifteen men to settle the dispute. The country was wild 
with excitement, and threats of "civil war" were heard. 
Three states, where the ' ' carpetbaggers " were being driven 
out, sent in two sets of electoral votes. This com- 
mission decided these votes in favor of Hayes by a vote of 
eight to seven. The excitement gradually died away.^" 

526. The fall of the carpetbaggers (1877). Hayes was 
a man of great moral courage. He immediately removed 
the soldiers from the South. Extreme Republicans were 
angry, and Democrats were happy. The white men of 
the South now took charge, and better governments were 
established. A kindlier feeling between the two sections 
gradually came about, especially since Hayes had called 
an ex-Confederate soldier, David M. Key, to be a 
member of his cabinet. 

527. The election of Garfield and Arthur (1880). 
Some RepubHcans thought Grant could be nominated 



NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 



335 




for a third term since Hayes 
had been so kind to the 
South. But they failed 
to nominate him. General 
Garfield was nominated. 
The Democrats put up Gen- 
eral Hancock (§478), the 
"Greenbackers," General 
Weaver, and the Prohi- 
bitionists, General Neal Dow. 
This was a campaign of the 
generals; much was said 
about their services in the 
war. General Garfield won 

JAMCS A. UAKl:'lt-LU 

by a large majority. 

But he, too, disappointed some Republican leaders- 
He was a wise and noble man. He refused to appoint 
men to office simply because members of Congress 

wanted them. The people 
were behind him in this 
stand. Unfortunately, a 
half-crazy man shot him as 
he was taking the train to 
his old college town to cele- 
brate the Fourth of July. 
For three months he lay 
between Hfe and death. 
The American people learned 
to hate the ' * spoils system 
(§356) as never before. 

528. The reform of the 

Civil Service (1 883 ).i^« Both 

CHESTER A. ARTHUR Graut siud Haycs had 




336 



NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 



demanded a change in the way men were appointed to 
office. Since the death of Garfield, good men everywhere 
joined in the cry for a change in this system. Now 
Senator Pendleton, a Democrat, introduced a bill by 
which men could get office not because they were party 
workers (§356) but because they were best fitted for it. 
This bill provided that men should be examined for the 
offices they wanted. Arthur, who became president when 
Garfield died, signed the bill. Every president since 
then has added to the Civil Service until now more than 
half the offices are filled by examination. Several states 
and cities now use the same system. 

529. Cleveland, the first Democratic president since 
the war (1884). The Democrats went in to win. They 
started by naming Grover Cleveland, a lawyer. He had 
been mayor of Buffalo, and was elected governor of New 
York by a vast majority. The 
Republicans had not read the 
"signs of the times." They 
nominated James G. Blaine, of 
Maine. He was popular — had 
been three times speaker of the 
House. He stood for the spoils 
system and denounced the 
South for not permitting the 
negro to vote. A number of 
Republicans, nicknamed 
"Mugwumps," refused to sup- 
port Blaine. The Prohibition- 
ists nominated St. John and put 
up a strong fight. The Green- 
backers put up General Benjamin F. Butler, who appealed 
to the soldier vote . These forces drew from the Republicans . 




GROVER CLEVELAND 



NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 337 

As a result Cleveland barely carried New York. Its vote 
was in doubt for several days, and men remembered 1876 
(§525). This time it was settled in favor of the Democrats. 

530. No more disputes over the election of the presi- 
dent. Congress went to work in earnest to prevent 
disputes over the presidency. It passed, and Cleveland 
signed, a bill providing that when neither the president 
nor the vice-president is able to act, the secretary of 
state, followed by other members of the cabinet, shall 
act. Another bill provided that each state decide which 
way its vote is to be counted. 

531. Interstate Conmierce Commission (1887). The 
Constitution had given Congress power over commerce 
among the states (Art. I, §8, ^3). For a long time 
people had been grumbhng about the railroads. The 
different companies had been uniting their roads, so that 
now a few controlled all the roads in the United States. 
The states could tax them, but could do Httle in making 
rules for the commerce they carried, for most of it went 
from one state to another. As soon as a carload of wheat 
or meat was started for a station in another state no state 
law dared to touch it (Art. I, §8, ^3). Congress, there- 
fore, passed the famous Interstate Commerce Commission 
Bill (1887). This law made one rule that no road should 
charge more per mile for a short haul than for a long haul. 
Another rule was that all railroads should keep their 
freight rates posted where people could see them. 

The railroads finally tried to get around this law by 
charging the same rates for all hauls and then paying 
back part to one shipper but not to another. This paying 
back a part of the charge was called a "rebate." Con- 
gress made the laws stronger and compelled the roads to 
use inventions to protect the lives of passengers." 



338 



NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 



532. Harrison elected over Cleveland (1888). Gen- 
eral Harrison had borne his part in the Civil War and 

was now a United States senator 
from Indiana. His grandfather 
had been president (§362), and 
the RepubHcans tried to imitate 
the campaign of 1840. Log 
cabins, raccoons, big balls roll- 
ing on, striking campaign songs, 
and Tippecanoe clubs were 
brought before the people. But 
the great argument of the 
Harrison men was for a high 
protective tariff. The tariff had 
been greatly reduced under 
Cleveland. 

Cleveland lost the support of 
many old soldiers because he had 
vetoed too many pension bills, and of many Democrats 
because he had not turned enough Republicans out of 
office. He was trying to keep down the spoils system. 
The other parties had their candidates. Harrison 
won. The electoral vote was 233 to 168, but the popular 
vote went to Cleveland by more than 100,000. 

533. The surplus and tariff legislation. The war had 
left the country groaning under a big debt (§507). To 
the surprise of many, more than half had been paid in 
less than twenty years. Most of the money to do this 
had come from the tariff. As the debt grew less people 
began to demand that the "war tariff" be cut down. 
This did not suit the manufacturers. 

In 1887 the war debt due had been paid, and a large 
amount of money was left in the treasury. Everybody 




KLNJVMIN H\RRISO\ 



NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 339 

agreed that this "surplus" should not be left idle, but 
they did not agree as to how it should be used. 

President Cleveland had recommended, and Congress- 
man Mills had introduced, a bill to lessen the surplus by 
cutting down the tariff. The Senate, much to the dis- 
gust of Cleveland, rejected the bill. Hence the tariff 
called out a big fight in the Harrison-Cleveland campaign. 

534. How the people voted on the tariff (1888). The 
McKinley Bill (1890). The RepubHcans favored a high 
tariff. For campaign purposes they charged the Demo- 
crats with aiming at "free trade" because they wanted 
a lower tariff. Most of the Republicans lived in the 
North, while most of the Democrats lived in the South. 

But some changes had taken place since the war. 
The farmers in some parts of the North now began to 
favor a low" tariff to reduce the cost of living. In the 
South men running the new iron and cotton mills began 
to favor a high tariff. 

The Republicans took the election to mean that the 
people were opposed to cutting down the tariff. McKinley 
brought in a bill to raise it. This bill also gave the 
president the right to make treaties with other nations, 
agreeing to red-^ice the tariff. This was called reciprocity. 
The Republicans proposed to reduce the surplus by 
spending it in pensions for old soldiers and their widows, 
for new buildings over the country, and for the new navy 
which had been begun under Arthur. 

535. Greenbacks and politics (1880-89). The govern- 
ment had been driven to put out more than $430,000,000 
in "greenbacks" during the war. They fell very low in 
value compared with gold or silver money. But prices 
paid to the farmer and wages paid to the laborer were 
never so high.^^^ After the panic of 1873 the Greenback 



340 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 

party was formed to force Congress to send out more 
paper money. Congress did not do this, but in 1875 
passed a law to "resume specie payment." By this 
Congress meant that banks should pay out gold and 
silver money if people wanted it. 

536. Populism. Ever since 1873 the discontent of the 
farmers of the West had. been increasing. FeeHng that 
the big political parties were controlled by the men of 
the East for their own interest, they organized the 
Granger movement of the West and the Greenback 
party. In western legislatures Grangers passed laws 
intended to bring about fairer freight rates and lower 
charges for the use of grain elevators. The Green- 
backers polled 300,000 votes in 1880 (§527) and then 
began to drift away from the party, but the farmers did 
not give up. They organized the Farmers' Alliance and 
won a few seats in Congress in 1890. 

A meeting of the Knights of Labor and the Farmers' 
AlHance was held in St. Louis in 1891. They agreed to 
work together under the name of the Peoples' or PopuHst 
party. They nominated General James B. Weaver of 
Iowa for president. In their platform they called for 
the free and unhmited coinage of silver so as to put more 
money into circulation, an income tax, government 
ownership of railroads and all monopolies, and a postal 
savings bank. 

537. The election of 1892. The McKinley Tariff Bill 
proved the undoing of the Republicans. The Demo- 
crats vigorously charged Congress with extravagance. 
Merchants raised prices and said the McKinley law 
compelled them to do it. People became dissatisfied with 
the RepubHcan administration. When the campaign 
of 1892 came on, Harrison was renominated by the 



NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 34i 

Republicans, but Cleveland, the Democratic candidate, 
was triumphantly elected to his second term. Weaver, 
the Populist, got over one million votes. 

538. The panic of 1893. In 1893 a financial panic 
swept the country. This was due to many causes. 
Men had been risking their money in buying the shares 
of new companies called trusts, and the railroads had 
been borrowing great sums of money. Americans were 
sending much gold out of the country to pay for imports, 
and little gold was being brought to the treasury. People 
began to fear that the government paper money was not 
good and always asked to be paid in gold. Business men 
felt uneasy and began to call for the money owed to them. 

A railroad failed and then some trusts; banks and 
factories closed, and thousands of workers found them- 
selves without employment. This panic caused great 
harm, especially among farmers. Wages were cut, and 
many persons, being out of work, lost their homes. Dis- 
content and suffering grew on all sides. By 1895, how- 
ever, prosperity began returning. 

539. The Wilson Bill. Cleveland wanted a moderate 
reduction of tariff. A bill known as the Wilson Bill 
was drawn up. It reduced the tariff and put sugar on 
the free Hst. The Democratic senators from Louisiana 
opposed free sugar and fought the bill.^^" At last Con- 
gress agreed to a tariff on sugar, and the bill went to the 
President. He refused to sign it, saying Congress had 
broken faith with the people. The bill became a law with- 
out his signature. It did not produce enough revenue, 
and the government had to go in debt. 

540. Income tax. The wages of the worker and the 
profits of the business man are income. During the 
Civil War, when Congress was desperately trying to find 



342 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 

money to carry on the war, it laid a tax on all incomes of 
over $800 a year. This tax was dropped after the war. 
In 1893, as we have seen, the Democrats passed the 
Wilson Tariff Bill. It was expected that this law would 
reduce the revenue by about $50,000,000, and in order 
to make up for this loss, an income tax was provided. 
It called for a tax of 2 per cent on all incomes of over 
$4,000 a year. Its defenders said that the rich largely 
escaped taxation and that this law would be a means of 
reducing the big fortunes. The question of the con- 
stitutionality of the law was raised, and two years later 
the Supreme Court declared the law unconstitutional, 
that is, that it was no law. 

SUGGESTED READLNGS 

References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 289-290, 
290-292, 294-297; Beard, Contemporary History, 1-4, 41-46, 50-54, 
90-132, 132-142, 164-198; Fish, American Nation, 420-464; JIaworth, 
Reconstruction and Utiion, 43-119; Paxson, New Nation, 49-133, 134- 
256; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 156-161, 164-167, 168-177. 

References for pupils: CuUom, Fifty Years; Foraker, Busy Life; 
Hoar, ,1 utobiography. 

Fiction: Atherton, Senator North; Ford, Honorable Peter Stirling; 
Payne, Mr. Salt. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Suppose you are living in New York in 1873. Write a letter 
describing scenes on Wall Street when the panic came. 2. Imagine 
yourself a senator from Louisiana in 1 893 . Write to a home newspaper 
explaining your stand on the Wilson Bill. 



CHAPTER XXII 
ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 

MONEY AND PRICES 

541. Falling prices. From 1873 to 1897 we lived in 
a time when the prices of things were going down. 
Many reasons were given. Some said it was due to men 
risking their money to get rich quickly, some to the 
tariff, and some believed it was due to the money situa- 
tion. Whatever was the truth, the farmers felt that 
they were being badly hurt by the falling prices. 

542. Act of 1873. Gold and silver coins had always 
been issued by our government to serve as money, but 
by the time of the Civil War, silver had almost dropped 
from circulation. After the war we used mainly green- 
backs. In 1873 Congress simply dropped the silver 
dollar from the list of coins. Nobody paid much atten- 
tion to this at the time, but later, when prices began to 
fall and hard times came, many people began to lay the 
blame on the Act of 1873.'^' 

543. Demand to remonetize silver. Those who held 
this view said the reason prices were falling was that 
the country did not have enough money. They thought 
that prices would rise if more money were put in cir- 
culation. In this way came on the demand that the 
government should begin coining silver dollars. The 
cry for more money came largely from the farmers of 
the West. The silver-mine owners of the West, also, 
were determined that silver should be brought back. 
They had seen the value of the silver in the silver dollar 

343 



344 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 

fall from one dollar in 1873 to fifty cents in 1895, and 
they demanded the value of silver be raised. 

544. The government buys silver. The agitation of 
the farmers and silver-miners got results as early as 
1878. Congress passed the Bland-AlHson Act ordering 
the government to buy from two million to four million 
dollars worth of silver every month and coin it into 
dollars. Still prices fell. Then in 1890 the Republicans 
tried to please the farmers and silver men by repealing 
the Bland-Allison Act and putting in its place the Sherman 
Silver Purchase Act. This law required the government 
to buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver every month. Still the 
price of silver and general prices went down. 

545. Repeal of the Sherman Act. When the panic of 
1893 hit the country, President Cleveland decided that 
the government should stop buying silver. It now had 
on hand a store big enough to coin 568,260,982 silver 
dollars. But the people wanted the gold that the silver 
had driven out of circulation. 

The government was supposed to keep a gold supply 
of $100,000,000 to back up all the other forms of money, 
but the supply fell to $95,000,000 in 1893. So President 
Cleveland called a special session of Congress and forced 
it to repeal the Sherman Act and quit buying silver. 
The farmers and silver men of the West were furious, 
but Cleveland held sternly to what he thought was 
right. 182 

546. Discovery of gold in Alaska. Some gold had 
been mined in Alaska ever since 1880, but in 1896 the 
great Klondike field on the Yukon was opened. Ameri- 
cans had to cross land claimed by Canada to reach 
the Klondike. This led to a dispute over the bound- 
ary between Canada and the United States which 



WORLD'S FAIRS 345 

was settled by arbitration (§589). The next year 
gold was discovered at Cape Nome. Soon other fields 
were found. Men were already leaving all parts of the 
country in a rush to the land of gold. Hundreds died 
of hardship and privation, but the rest pressed on over 
the dreary mountain trails. Some "struck it rich," but 
the larger number failed to find the fortunes they sought. 
Alaska has proved to be a storehouse of riches.'**^ From 
1880 to 1918 the value of the gold alone taken from that 
country amounted to $301, 000, 000. ^^^ 

WORLD'S FAIRS 

547. The Columbian Exposition (1893). In 1890 
Congress decided that a great world's fair should be held 
in Chicago to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary 
of the discovery of America. The country could not get 
ready by 1892, so the fair was held one year later. The 
fair showed the great progress made in industry, agri- 
culture, art, and all other things in the last four hundred 



■^^-i*B«^»W^^ 



THE MANUFACTURES BUILDING AT THE WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 

years. Here you could see all the various stages in the 
development of gold-mining from the miner at work with 



346 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 

his pan slowly separating the gold from the gravel, up 
to the most expensive and powerful machinery now used 
in crushing the rock or in hydraulic mining. 



t : 







THE EDUCATIONAL BUILDING AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION 

Leading men from all over the world came to hold 
meetings, to discusss important questions like medicine, 
surgery, temperance, music, education, and religion. 
They told about progress in their own countries, and got 
acquainted. They found out that the nations are much 
alike and have about the same problems. Meetings like 
this should often be held. It would help to do away 
with war and would show real progress. ^^^ 

Among other great expositions held in later years 
were the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo (1901), 
the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis (1904), 
the Lewis and Clark Exposition at Portland, Oregon 
(1905), the Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Seattle 
(1909), and the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Fran- 
cisco (1915). 

THE TARIFF AND POLITICS 

548. The campaign of 1896. The Democrats had 
divided on the question of silver. The western wing got 



THE TARIFF AND POLITICS 



347 




control of the party in 1896 and nominated William 
Jennings Bryan of Nebraska for president. ^^"^ Mr. Bryan 
was a fine speaker who favored 
the government coining all the 
silver that could be brought 
to it. He wanted the gov- 
ernment to stamp 3 7 1 K grains 
of silver as a dollar, although 
it was worth only fifty cents in 
the world's markets. He 
believed that both gold and 
silver money would be used if 
the government did this. This 
was the "free silver," "bimet- 
allism," or "16 to i" plan. 
Many eastern Democrats 
refused to follow Mr. Bryan 
and were known as ' ' gold Democrats. ' ' The Republicans 
opposed the Bryan plan and talked about tariff and pros- 
perity. Their candidate, Wilham McKinley of Ohio, was 
elected. 

549. The Dingley Tariff. The Republicans now en- 
acted the Dingley Tariff Law (1897). Dingley made the 
tariff somewhat higher than the Wilson Bill did (§539). 
This law put a large amount of money into the treasury 
and was not disturbed for twelve years. 

550. The election of 1900. The Democrats raised the 
cry of "imperialism" in the campaign of 1900. By this 
they meant that extending American power to Cuba, 
Porto Rico, the PhiHppines, and Hawaii, as the result 
of the war with Spain, was all wrong. They said it was 
a bad thing to be conquering and ruling peoples and 
lands that wanted to be independent. The Republicans 



WILLIAM J. BRY.^N 



348 



ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 



said that these lands came to us as a result of the war, 
that we wanted to rule them for their own good and not 
selfishly, and that some other 
country would surely seize them 
if we let them go. Further, the 
Republicans said these people 
were hot ready for self-gov- 
ernment but that the United 
States would train them. The 
Democrats also demanded free 
silver and nominated Mr. Bryan. 
But President McKinley, with 
Theodore Roosevelt as vice- 
president, easily defeated him. 
551. End of "free silver." 
Gold was discovered in South 
Africa in 1886 and in Alaska ten 
years later. These two countries poured a big supply of 
the yellow metal into the markets of the world in the 
next few years. '^^ 

552. The Gold Standard Law. By the Gold Standard 
Act of 1900 the gold dollar, containing 23.22 grains of 
pure gold, was made the legal money standard of the 
United States. All other forms of money, and there 
are nine of them, are directly or indirectly exchangeable 
for gold. Gold is the prop underneath them all. This 
was a victory for the gold standard men and showed 
there was no chance for bimetallism. 




WILLIAM MCKINLEY 



ROOSEVELT IN OFFICE 



553. Roosevelt's two terms (1901-9). At the begin- 
ning of his second term President McKinley was killed 
by an assassin. His place was taken by Theodore 



ROOSEVELT IN OFFICE 



349 



Roosevelt of New York, the vice-president. Roosevelt was 
already well known. ^^^^ He had been in politics for years 
and had earned a reputation for courage and honesty. 
As head of the Civil Service Commission under Harrison 
he did not fear to oppose the big politicians when they 
tried to violate the Civil Service Law (§528). Afterward 
he became police commissioner of New York City, assist- 
ant secretary of the navy, governor of New York, and 
then vice-president. Few men understood Americans as 
Theodore Roosevelt did, and only Washington, Jackson, 
and Lincoln have enjoyed such popularity. His hatred 
of fraud, his unquestioned courage, and his pure patriot- 
ism give him a high place among great Americans. 

Roosevelt was never much 
interested in the tariff, but he 
was quick to catch the meaning 
of the trusts or "big business.' ' 
He believed that they should 
be put under government 
control, not because they were 
big, but because in many cases 
big companies became monop- 
olies and oppressed the people 
(§531). He wanted to make 
big business "be good." 

554. Roosevelt the peace- ^ ^^ 
maker. In 1903 and 1904 
Russia and Japan were at war 
with each other over territory 
in China. Russia had seized 
Manchuria, and Japan held 
Korea, but they got to quarreling, and a bloody war 
followed. 1^^ President Roosevelt, after the Japanese had 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT 



350 ECONOMIC QUESTIONvS IN POLITICS 

defeated Russia in several battles, decided that the time 
for peace had come. He urged both sides to send 
representatives to the United States where they could 
hold a conference and make peace. They agreed, 
and the meetings were held at Portsmouth, New Hamp- 
shire. President Roosevelt helped all he could, and 
finally a treaty was signed. This was a great triumph 
for the President; it showed he was a true friend of 
peace.™ 

555. Roosevelt's reelection (1904). The Democrats 
nominated Alton B. Parker of New York. Roosevelt 
won a smashing victory, carrying every state in the 
North and West, and Missouri in the South. During 
his second term he continued his fight against the trusts 
and insisted that Congress should strengthen its control 
of the railroads. His hard-hitting attacks on the trusts, 
the railroads, and the political bosses won for him many 
bitter enemies in his own party and out of it. But he was 
a splendid fighter and was always on the side of the 
people. He was a tremendous power for reform. 

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 

556. A rich country. America is the richest country 
in the world. This is due to its rich natural resources 
and to the climate. In this cHmate people can work 
hard, and the natural resources are here to reward their 
effort. It is estimated that in 1918 the total national 
wealth of the United States amounted to $228,000,000,000. 
This does not mean the amount of money in the country, 
but rather the value of such things as farms, factories, 
railroads, mines, quarries, forests, and oil wells. 

557. What natural resources are. Natural resources 
are land, forests, fisheries, minerals such as coal, oil, and 



CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 35 r 

precious metals, and water power. The supply seemed 
unlimited, and for a long time nobody thought of using 
these resources carefully so they would not be used up. 
But President Roosevelt saw we were making a great 
mistake. He knew that Europeans thought us the most 
wasteful people in the world. ^^^ He knew lumbermen 
went through the forests carelessly cutting down trees 
and not caring if the young trees were destroyed. He 
knew that we were using twice as much timber as we were 
growing and that there was great destruction by forest 
fires. He could see the end of the forests only a few years 
away. 

558. Saving the lands for the people. Roosevelt felt, 
too, that it was wrong to let the coal, oil, and water power 
sites of our public lands pass into the hands of corpora- 
tions which would use them up quickly for profit. He 
believed that these lands should be saved for the people. 
Acting under an old law, he withdrew from settlement 
about 150,000,000 acres and created a large number of 
forest reserves. He thus saved the forests from destruc- 
tion. These forest reserves are mostly in the West. 
Some people objected to Roosevelt's poHcy, saying it 
kept people out of those regions, but he held to his plan. 

President Taft also was a friend of conservation, and 
Congress, by his advice, passed nine conservation laws 
(1910). Two of these laws provided for leasing coal, 
phosphate, oil, and natural gas lands. The idea was not 
to prevent the use of these resources, but by keeping them 
under government control to make sure there was no 
waste. 

559. The Forestry Service. The Forestry Service, a 
branch of the Department of Agriculture, looks after our 
forests. Agents of the service have built roads through 



352 



ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 



the forests and have turned some of the forests into 
national parks. Rangers are always on the watch to 




THE ROOSEVELT D \M \CROSS S\LT RIVER 



check forest fires. These fires destroy much timber each 
year. In 191 9, 1,400,000 acres of forest land were burned 
over in Montana and Idaho alone. 1^- 

560. Reclaiming waste lands. Sixty years ago settlers 
in the West wrote their friends "back home" of the coun- 
try through which they had passed. They told of the 
rolling plains without a tree as far as the eye could see. 
They described the Indians and the vast herds of buffalo 
that sometimes blocked the trains as they crossed the 
tracks. They spoke of regions near the mountains cov- 
ered with sagebrush and cactus. They told how the 
wagon-trains had to travel from one water-hole to another 
and how the scarcity of water was the curse of the land. 

Later settlers, seeing what the Mormons in Utah had 
done by irrigating the land, began to build little irrigat- 
ing systems leading from the rivers out on to the land 



THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 



353 



Wherever the Hfe-giving water was brought to the land, 
Nature repaid them with bountiful harvests. Then they 
set about irrigating the dry lands in earnest. Dams were 
built, pumping stations set up, and ditches dug. Private 
companies, counties, states, and at last the nation took 
up the work. Today all along the Rockies, from north to 
south, prosperous and happy farmers are growing grain 
and tending orchards of apples and oranges where a few 
years ago sagebrush and the wolf ruled undisturbed. ^^-^ 

561. Election of 1908. For a third time the Democrats 
nominated Bryan. Roosevelt by his enormous influence 
easily secured the nomination of his friend William H. 
Taft. The Socialists nominated Eugene V. Debs. 
Roosevelt's backing gave Taft 

a great advantage. He was 
elected by a large majority. 

THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 

562. Tariff revision (1909- 
13). The Republican plat- 
form of 1908 favored revising 
the tariff. Congress took up 
this matter at once, and the 
result was the Payne-Aldrich 
Act. The people had expect- 
ed the tariff rates to be 
lowered, but when the bill 
was pubHshed it was plain this 
had not been done. Taft 
signed the bill {^56$).^^* 

563. Postal savings banks. 
Postal savings banks have been in use in Europe for a 
long time. But not until 19 10 were they estabHshed in 

13 




WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 



354 



ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 



this country. Friends of the plan argued that it would 
promote thrift, as many people would save money if they 




THE PARCEL POST SECTION OF A LARGE CITY POST OFFICE 

could deposit it with the government and get interest for 
it. This proved to be true. By 1918 the postal savings 
deposits exceeded $167,000,000. The government pays 
2 per cent interest on deposits. Anyone can open an 
account at his post office by depositing one dollar. 

564. Parcel post. Later the post office took up another 
task, the carrying of packages too large to go through the 
mail. To be sure, several express companies were 
making a business of handHng such packages, but the 
people believed they charged too much. The express 
companies opposed the bill introduced in Congress pro- 
viding for the post office to take up this work. They 
said they would be ruined if the bill was passed. But 
Congress passed the law (191 2), and people now wonder 
how they ever got along without the parcel post. 



THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 35^ 

565. The "progressive movement." During the 
twenty years before the election of President Taft there 
was a steadily growing and widespread feeling among 
the people that "big business," or the "special interests" 
as they were called, had too much to say about the way 
the government was run. This feeling was very strong 
in the West, but it was shared by men of all parties in 
all parts of the country. They said that in the nominating 
conventions, in the state legislatures, and even in the halls 
of Congress, the tracks of the "special interests" could 
be seen. On the other hand, measures for the common 
good could hardly get a hearing. Out of this arose a 
demand for direct legislation — initiative, referendum, and 
recall — and for more thorough regulation of "big busi- 
ness." 

President Roosevelt, the people's champion in the fight 
with the "interests," had backed Mr. Taft when Taft ran 
for the presidency, and on the strength of this backing Taft 
was elected. 1^^ Therefore when Taft signed the Payne- 
Aldrich Bill, opposed by the "progressive" members of 
Congress, they fell out with the President. They 
said he was not true to Roosevelt's ideas. Senator 
LaFollette became the leader of the "progressives." He 
tried to secure the RepubHcan nomination for the presi- 
dency. The eastern "progressives," regarding him as 
too extreme in his views, threw their strength to Roose- 
velt, and LaFollette fell into the background. 

566. The Republican convention (191 2). To the nomi- 
nating convention at Chicago many states sent two sets 
of men, one to vote for Taft, the other for Roosevelt. 
The convention machinery was in the hands of Taft's 
friends, the "regulars," who seated the Taft men and 
nominated Taft.'^" The Roosevelt men withdrew from 



356 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS 

the convention and founded a new party, the Progressive 
party. In August they met at Chicago and nominated 
Roosevelt for president. In their platform they declared 
for the initiative and referendum, woman suffrage, and 
popular election of United States senators. 

567. The Democratic convention. At Baltimore, where 
the Democratic convention met, there was the same sort 
of fight. William Jennings Bryan was the leader of the 
progressive element and was powerful enough to break 
down the "regulars" and bring about the nomination of 
Woodrow Wilson, governor of New Jersey. ^^^ The plat- 
form was progressive. The result of the election was 
never in doubt. Taft carried only two states, Roosevelt 
five, and Wilson all the others. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 697-699, 729, 
745) 755) 760-762; Haworth, Reconstruction, chap, ix; Ogg, National 
Progress, chaps, i, ii, vi, xi; Latane, America as a World Power, chaps, 
vii, xiii; Bogart, Economic History, 448, 449; Taussig, Tariff History 
of the United States; Tarbell, The Tariff in Our Times; Van Hise, 
The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States; Croly, 
The New Nationalism; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chap, xxviii. 

References for pupils: Hagadorn, Boy's Life of Roosevelt; Roose- 
velt, Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children; Ohn, American Irri- 
gation Farming; Dorrance, The Story of the Forest; Price, The Land 
We Live In; James, Readings in American History, 104. 

Fiction: Darhng, Baldy of Nome; Hough, The Young Alaskans. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. You are Hving on a Kansas wheat farm in the nineties. Write 
a letter to your cousin in Ohio telling him why you want more silver 
money made. 2. Topic, "A day at the Columbian Exposition." 
3. You are living in a town in western Montana. Topic, "Why I 
am against forest reserves." 4. Imagine yourself a Roosevelt dele- 
gate to the national Republican convention in 191 2. Write an 
account of your experiences to your local newspaper. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN 

568. Cuba rebels. Of all Spain's vast empire in the 
New World only Cuba and Porto Rico remained under 
Spanish rule in 1850. Spanish government in these 
colonies was so corrupt, cruel, and unfair that discontent 
was always at the boiling point. In 1868 a rebellion broke 
out in Cuba which continued for ten years. It was a 




GULF OF MEXIC 



A T L A N T I C 



% — "\ ■ ^ ■\^^^f ^.*^^^^° O C E A N 






::m -^p^^'^'W E 'S%p^ c^:i-"- 



N>;rRAL ^.^^ 




.Ks>^^ 






M ERICA 



^'£' 



^-'J^y isEA 






PORTO RICO AND CUBA 



failure. A second revolt blazed up in 1895. Both sides 
showed the greatest cruelty. Gomez, the Cuban leader, 

357/ 



358 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 




HOW THE CUBANS FOUGHT 



organized bands of Cubans who caught small groups of 
Spanish soldiers and slaughtered them without mercy. . 

Weyler, the 
Spanish general, 
burned the vil- 
lages and gath- 
ered the women 
and children in- 
to great camps 
so they could 
not feed the 
rebels. These 
camps were 
places of misery 
and death, star- 
carrying off these poor people by thousands. 
America's interest in the struggle. Americans 
naturally felt indignant at this awful state of affairs at 
their front door. The Cubans seemed to them an 
oppressed people struggling bravely for the freedom which 
rightly belonged to them. Then, too, Americans owning 
plantations and sugar mills in the island saw their property 
destroyed and their business ruined. Congress decided 
to recognize the Cubans as belligerents, but Cleveland 
clung to his policy of neutrality. The new president, 
McKinley, was a lover of peace. He opposed war with 
Spain, which many people were now demanding. In- 
stead, he sent a strong protest to Spain about the bad 
conditions in Cuba.^^^ 

570. The destruction of the "Maine." The Spanish 
party in Cuba was so bitter against Americans that our 
government sent the battleship "Maine" to Havana to 
protect the Americans living there. On the night of 



vation 
569- 



WAR WITH SPAIN 359 

February 15, 1898, a terrific explosion tore a great hole 
in the side of the "Maine." She sank, carrying down 
260 men. Americans were stunned at the news. If 
Spaniards had done this deed, and Americans believed 
they had, it meant war.^^* The Spanish government 
declared it knew nothing of the matter, but Americans 
would not listen; the war spirit swept the land.™ 

571. The declaration of war. Further correspondence 
with Spain bringing only promises of reform in Cuba, 
President McKinley, April 11, 1898, sent a war message 
to Congress. Eight days later Congress passed resolu- 
tions demanding independence for Cuba. The president 
was given power to use the army and navy in bringing 
this about. Congress also solemnly declared that the 
United States would withdraw from Cuba as soon as a 
firm government was established. 

572. Dewey at Manila. The war began with a great 
naval victory. Commodore George Dewey with his fleet 
was at Hongkong, China. He at once started for Manila 
to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet known to be there. 




-^^m. 



THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY 



On the morning of May i , Dewey's six ships attacked the 
Spanish fleet, destroyed it, and silenced the batteries on 



360 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



shore. 201 It was a splendid victory. Three months later 
an American army under General Merritt arrived from 
the United States and seized the city of Manila. We now 
held the PhiHppines. 

573. The war in Cuba. While Dewey and Merritt were 
winning the Philippines, the war in Cuba was starting. 
An army was quickly built up. One regiment of volun- 
teer cavalry made up of cowboys, miners, lumbermen, 
Indians, and college athletes attracted special attention. 
It was called the "Rough Riders." Leonard Wood 202 
was its colonel, and Theodore Roosevelt its Heutenant- 
colonel. About the middle of June an army of 16,500 

men started for 
Cuba. Two 
battles were 
won. El Caney 
and San Juan. 
The Americans 
then prepared 
to storm San- 
tiago. But the 
Spanish gen- 
eral saw there 
was no hope 
of holding out. 
On July 17 he 
surren dered 
the city and, 
with it, most of 

CHARGE OF THE ROUGH RIDERS AT SAN JUAN eaStCm Cuba. 

Four days later General Miles invaded Porto Rico. The 
island was rapidly passing into his hands when news of 
peace proposals came on August 12. 




WAR WITH SPAIN 



/ 

361 



574. Work of the navy. When the war began, the 
Spanish admiral, Cervera, sailed from the Cape Verde 




BATTLE OF SANTIAGO 



Islands for Cuba. Our ships were on the watch for him, 
but he shpped past them into the harbor of Santiago. 
The American fleet tried to bottle him up by sinking an 
old ship, the ' ' Merrimac, " across the mouth of the harbor. 
The attempt failed, and the six men who made it and 
their commander, Lieutenant Hobson, were captured by 
the Spaniards. 

On the morning of July 3 the Spanish fleet darted out 
of the harbor. The admiral's flagship led. At once the 
Americans opened fire, and a running fight took place 
along the coast of Cuba. One after another, the Spanish 
vessels went down or ran ashore. In four hours the 
Spanish fleet was completely destroyed and Admiral 
Cervera and 1,700 men were prisoners. ^^^ Spain was 
wiped from the sea. 

575. The peace treaty. Representatives of the United 
States and Spain met at Paris and made a treaty. Under 
this treaty it was agreed: (i) that Cuba should be free; 



362 



/ 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 




(2) that Porto Rico should be ceded to the United States; 

(3) that the Philippines and the island of Guam should 

go to the United 
States ; (4) that the 
United States 
should pay Spain 
$20,000,000. 

576. Free Cuba. 
When Congress de- 
clared, at the be- 
ginning of the war, 
that the United 
States would with- 
draw from Cuba as 
soon as a firm gov- 
ernment was estab- 
Hshed, the people 
of Europe only 
laughed. They did 
not believe we 
would do it. But 
see what happened. 
When the Span- 
ish army left the 
country, American 
engineers went into the island and wiped out yellow fever 
by cleaning up all places w^here the mosquito breeds. 
Our government started modern schools and helped the 
Cubans to found their own republic. Then our soldiers 
came home, and Cuba was ready to go ahead as a free 
country (1902). 

Congress had adopted the Piatt Amendment. Under it 
(i) the United States will see that no foreign power ever 






THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



THE PANAMA CANAL 363' 

gets control of the island. (2) It will see that order, 
independence, and republican government are maintained. 
(3) It will supervise Cuban finances. (4) Cuba will con- 
tinue sanitary reforms. (5) The United States is to have 
the Isle of Pines and certain land in Cuba for a naval 
station. 

In 1906 the Cubans seemed about to start a civil war. 
To maintain order the United States took charge of the 
country, administered its affairs for three years, then 
withdrew. Since that time conditions in the island have 
been orderly. Uncle Sam really has been a big brother 
to Cuba. 

577. Results of the war. Several important results 
grew out of the war with Spain: (i) It showed that all 
sections of the United States would stand together against 
a foreign foe. We are a united nation in spite of the 
memories of the Civil War. (2) It forced the United 
States to become a world power. Our time of isolation 
was gone. (3) It raised the issue of colonial power. 
Were we to start a policy of taking and holding foreign 
territory against the will of the people? (4) It led to a 
bigger army and navy. (5) It opened the way to an 
expansion of world trade. 

THE PANAMA CANAL 

578. Need for a canal. We have seen how difficult it 
was for people from the East to get to California when 
gold was discovered. This gave rise to a demand for a 
railroad and a canal across the Isthmus. A company 
was organized, and the Panama railroad was built. 2"-' 
But as the west coast gained in population and wealth, 
American farmers and manufacturers wanted to ship 
goods across the country. They objected to the high 



364 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

freight charges of the railroads. They thought a canal 
across the Isthmus would help them, for it is a well- 
known fact that bulky goods can be shipped much more 
cheaply by water than by rail. 

579. The French effort. In 1869 a French engineer, 
De Lesseps, completed the Suez Canal. It was a great 
success, and De Lesseps began to plan a canal across 
the Isthmus of Panama. He organized a company and 
started to work. But yellow fever, as well as other dis- 
eases, killed the workmen by thousands. Bad manage- 
ment also helped ruin the undertaking. After spending 
about $300,000,000 he gave up the task (1889). 









THE BATTLESHIP 



580. Uncle Sam takes hold. During the war with 
Spain our largest battleship, the "Oregon," had to make 
a trip all the way round South America from San Fran- 
cisco to Cuba in order to reach the scene of fighting. This 
trip took sixty-six days and more than ever Americans 
wished for a canal through the Isthmus. After the war 
our interests in the Pacific made it clear that something 
must be done. But England stood in the way. Because 
of her world commerce she wanted a voice in the canal 



THE PANAMA CANAL 365 

question, so in 1901 a treaty, called the Hay-Pauncefote 
Treaty, was signed. It agreed that the United States 



W\ 



CARI^BBEAN SEA 



1 _ "-y ^'^ MOSQUITO '•y^ f, O, 



c..^-^-. ' •\^^'*- --" \U /J^^i 

^ '"""Mo 

PACIFIC OCEAN 



THE REPUBLIC OF PANAM.^ 



should build the canal and that it should be open to the 
ships of all nations on equal terms. 

Congress bought out the French company for 
$40,000,000 and tried to buy a strip of land across 
the Isthmus of Panama from Colombia. The govern- 
ment of Colombia was offered $10,000,000 in cash and 
$250,000 annually, but it wanted more. The matter 
dragged. Then word came that the people of Panama 
had rebelled against Colombia and had established an 
independent country — the Republic of Panama. 

President Roosevelt immediately recognized the new 
republic^"" and in a few days made a treaty with it by 
which we got a strip of land ten miles wide across the 
Isthmus. The amount paid was the same as we had 
offered Colombia. 

581. Building the canal. The first thing was to clean 
up this region so our men would not get yellow fever 



366 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



(§579)- Since this disease is carried by the mosquito, it 
was necessary to screen the houses and to drain the water 
from holes and swamps where the mosquito breeds. 
The towns were made clean and kept clean. The disease 
was conquered. Then the work went ahead, and the first 
ship passed through the canal in 19 14. 

582. The canal. The canal is 49 miles long and from 
300 to 1,000 feet wide. There are 12 locks. It cost 
$375,000,000 to build it, but it is already earning more 
than the cost of its upkeep. In 191 9, 2,107 ships passed 
through the canal. 

It is easily seen that the Panama canal is of great 
importance in the trade between our east and west 
coasts and with the coast cities of South America.-'"' 



^/^^Kauai I. ^,vit^' 

Vni.hau Koloa y,0 ^^^^^^ 

'• ..iC^ GAHUl/^Laie , 

V}5^-^ C^vO AIOLOKAII. , 

Lana. l\J%>h-fa^3tMAUI I. 






Kealaikahiki Ch. y^ l^i.,.-^ „! 



Alen 



„f//a"^ 



HAWAII 

Scale 

9; Statute Miles to < 

Railways _ 

Steamship lines.. 
Lava flows 




Kapoht 



THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 



AMERICA IN THE FAR EAST 

583. The Hawaiian Islands. Americans early settled 
in Hawaii.-"^ They were missionaries, business men, 



AMERICA IN THE FAR EAST 367^ 

traders, and cattle men. They developed great sugar 
plantations. In 1893 some Americans and natives 
started a revolution against the native queen. The 
revolutionists got the upper hand and asked the United 
States to annex the islands. President Harrison was 
willing, but the Senate failed to approve the act. Later, 
the offer was renewed, but President Cleveland, believing 
the queen had been badly treated and that it would be 
wrong to take the islands, opposed the offer. But in 
1898, after the Spanish war, they were annexed. The 
islands were on the highway to the Philippines. 

584. Samoa. Tutuila. Far out in the Pacific, two- 
thirds of the way from San Francisco to Australia, lie the 
Samoan Islands. Although not very valuable, they are 
useful as coaling stations. As early as 1878 we secured 
a coaling station there and promised to protect the islands 
from other powers. Later Germany and Great Britain 
also secured interests in the islands. 

In 1886 a civil war between native chiefs and the 
high-handed actions of the German consul almost brought 
on war between the powers. Great Britain, Germany, 
and the United States all had warships there, but a terrible 
storm destroyed the German and American ships and all 
the British except one. This gave time for sober thought. 
It was finally agreed (1900) that the United States should 
take over the Island of Tutuila and the harbor of Pago- 
Pago, and Germany the rest of the islands. Great Britain 
withdrew altogether. 

585. China (1900). The Chinese along the coast felt 
their country was being torn to pieces by the great powers 
of Europe and of Japan. These countries were seizing 
Chinese territory and interfering in Chinese affairs. The 
Chinese government was too weak to resist. Then the 



368 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



"Boxers," a band of rebels opposed to foreigners, killed the 
German ambassador and other foreigners at Pekin.^o^ 
The United States joined the other powers in sending 
troops to rescue the besieged people. The powers then 
demanded pay for their trouble. There was great danger 
that China would be divided among the powers and 
cease to exist as a nation. Secretary Hay opposed this. 
He wanted to keep China a country where all nations 
could trade freely. He called this the ' ' open-door ' ' policy. 
The powers agreed to this plan, and China was saved. 

When a settlement of the "boxer" trouble was made, 
the United States received $24,000,000 from China. 
This was $13,000,000 more than our losses, so we gave 
this sum back to her as an act of friendship. China 
decided to use this money in sending her young men and 
women to the colleges and universities of the United 
States. By the ' ' open-door ' ' policy we won the position of 

China's best friend. 
586. The question 
of the Philippines. 
The war with Spain 
gave us the Philip- 
pines. TheFiHpinos 
wanted independ- 
ence, but they were 
not ready for it. 
Only a few were 
educated. Some, 
indeed, were wild, 
living in little bands 
or warring tribes under their own leaders. One of their 
leaders, Aguinaldo, resisted the Americans for about 
two years. When he was captured, the trouble ended. 




PHILIPPINE SCHOOL 



INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 



369 



587. Government of the Philippines. America slowly 
worked out a plan of government. First, it was made 
clear that the people must settle down and be orderly. 
The American army saw to that. Then a system of free 
schools was established. Many hundreds of good Ameri- 
can teachers went to the islands to educate the natives. 209 
Good roads and bridges have been built, and better 
methods of agriculture are being taught. Sanitation is 
looked after, and libraries have been founded. 

The president appoints a governor, and the natives 
elect the legislature.. This does not suit some of the 
natives, as they wish entire independence. In 1916 
Congress declared that they shall have their independence 
just as soon as they show they are ready for it. The 
Filipinos and the Porto Ricans are being trained by the 
United States for self-government. 



r^^^/v^ c_e^±v^ ^ 




\J^ StXa M E^CEiP . r " HL ' 







( ''\y 



P -I L 1 F I C 



THE ALASKA PURCHASE OF 186? 



INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 



^' 588. The seal fisheries arbitration (1893). When we 
^bought Alaska in 1867 we took over her claim to the 



370 



OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 



seal fisheries in Bering Sea. Great Britain opposed this 
claim, saying we could not control the fishing for more 




:4^?VmA- 



.^'f>i > 



o. 



ALEXANDER 



P 



^^^' v^ ">f sVr^^^ 



(9 r /^ yi A^ 



\kCHIIPLAGO, r^ ^'^ .\ f I 






eiiiuiary established '""J 



DIXOX EXTRAXCE 



0^':, 



^t^^ .m 



THE DISIUrED ALASKAN BOUNDARY 



than three miles from shore. Our navy arrested tl^*^ 
masters and crews of several British vessels hunting seals 
in this region, and the dispute grew bitter. Then the 



INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 37 1 

two countries decided to arbitrate the matter. The de- 
cision required the United States to pay damages and 
denied her claim to control of the sea. We accepted 
the decision.''^'' 

589. The Alaskan boundary arbitration (1896). Soon 
another question arose. The boundary between Alaska 
and Canada was not clearly defined, and for some years 
nobody cared. But with the discovery of gold in the 
Yukon Valley (1896) disputes arose. In this matter both 
sides wanted arbitration. Since Great Britain had charge 
of Canada's foreign relations, our dealings were with her. 
But there were two Canadians on the arbitration com- 
mission. The Americans won the decision, and Canada 
accepted the new line (see map). 

590. The Venezuela arbitration (1899). Venezuela 
and Great Britain disputed about the boundary between 
Venezuela and British Guiana. This dispute began in 
1841 when a line was run that gave Guiana 50,000' square 
miles of land claimed by Venezuela. The matter came 
up several times, but no settlement was reached. Vene- 
zuela appealed to the United States for justice in 1895. 
President Cleveland demanded the question be submitted 
to arbitration. He said the Monroe Doctrine meant we 
would not allow a state like Venezuela to be oppressed by 
a European power. Lord Salisbury, prime minister of 
England, opposed arbitration and denied that the Monroe 
Doctrine covered the case. 

President Cleveland then sent a message to Congress 
which plainly stated that the United States would resist 
any attempt by Great Britain to seize Venezuelan land. 
He suggested the appointment of a commission to study 
the question and tell us where the line should be. Con- 
gress immediately provided for the commission. 



37^ OUR xNEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

Englishmen could hardly believe the news when they 
heard there was danger of war. Public sentiment quickly 
turned against Salisbury, who finally yielded to the 
demand that the dispute be arbitrated. The court of arbi- 
tration which met at Paris (1899) decided England was 
entitled to about five-sixths of what she claimed. The 
best feature of this case was avoiding war by arbitration. 

591. The Newfoundland fisheries arbitration (1910). 
For a hundred years there had been disputes over the 
fishing grounds off the coast of Newfoundland (§160). 
Many unsuccessful attempts had been made to reach a 
settlement. In 1910 the United States and Great Britain 
referred the question to the Hague Tribunal. The deci- 
sion gave Great Britain the right to make reasonable rules 
for fishing on the Banks, but she was required to let the 
American fishermen go on shore to dry their fish and to 
buy bait and supplies. 

What a fine thing it is that these two great nations, 
the United States and Great Britain, have formed a 
habit of settling their differences by arbitration instead 
of war ! If other nations were equally wilhng to do this, 
war would soon be no more. 

592. The Hague meetings. In 1899 the Czar of 
Russia called a peace meeting of the nations at The Hague 
in Holland. For years all great nations had been building 
big navies and adding to their armies. Each feared it 
would be caught unprepared when war came. This 
system piled up taxes on the people, and almost every- 
body was tired of it. Accordingly twenty-seven coun- 
tries, among them the United States, sent men to the 
conference. They did not succeed in putting an end to 
war, but some rules were adopted for making war less 
terrible. A permanent court of arbitration was created. 



INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 



373 



Nations were invited to bring their disputes to it for 
settlement. The United States was the first country 
to bring a case to this court. 








THE CARNEGIE PEACE PALACE, AT THE HAGUE 

Many friends of peace felt that the meeting of 1899 
only made a start toward getting rid of war. President 
Roosevelt was one of these. He urged the Czar to call 
another meeting. This was done in 1907. Forty-four 
countries sent representatives. Much more was done 
at the second Hague Conference than at the first. Defi- 
nite rules were made on such subjects as arbitration, the 
rights of neutrals, and the way in which war is to be 
carried on. There were thirteen of these rules, or "con- 
ventions," as they were called. Most of them were 
accepted by the leading nations of the world. 

The two Hague meetings did not put an end to war 
as had been hoped. The nations of Europe were so filled 
with hatred and suspicion of one another that their agree- 
ments amounted to httle. Many people came to believe 
we could not get rid of war until some way was found for 
compelling nations to arbitrate questions in dispute. 



/ 

374 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

593. Progress at home. Three notable attempts have 
been made in recent years to put the United States on 
a general arbitration basis. In 1904 President Roosevelt 
made treaties with several countries in which it was 
agreed that future disputes should be referred to the 
Hague Tribunal. The Senate rejected the plan. In 
191 1 President Taft made general peace treaties with 
Great Britain and France which provided for arbitration. 
The Senate again failed to accept the plan. When Presi- 
dent Wilson took office he made peace treaties with thirty 
countries. William Jennings Bryan, secretary of state 
at that time, was largely responsible for these treaties. 
They are called the "wait-a-bit" treaties because the 
nations agreed they would wait a year after a dispute 
arose before going to war. This delay gives a chance for 
study of the question and also for the nations to "cool 
off." If all nations had followed this rule, the terrible 
World War would probably have been avoided. 

THE NEWER MONROE DOCTRINE 

594. Venezuela again in trouble (1902). Citizens of 
England, Germany, and Italy had loaned money to 
Venezuela. For several years Venezuela had paid nothing 
on this debt. Finally these countries sent German and 
British war vessels to blockade Venezuelan ports and 
seize the custom houses to collect the debt. The blockade 
had lasted a year. Then President Roosevelt persuaded 
Venezuela to submit the question to arbitration and a 
settlement was soon reached. 

595. Santo Domingo. In 1904 Santo Domingo also 
was in debt to Europe and suffered from revolution. 
European powers threatened to collect the debt by force. 
Roosevelt took charge of the finances of the country at 



THE NEWER MONROE DOCTRINE 



375 



the request of Santo Domingo. Since then money matters 
have been better managed and the danger of collection 
by force has disappeared. Twice under the treaty 
American troops have been used to put down disorder. 
The United States has also shouldered the same tasks 
in Haiti. 

596. The situation in Mexico. In 191 1 a revolution 
drove President Diaz from the country. For thirty years 




he ruled with an iron hand, enforcing law and order and 
collecting heavy taxes.''" Land ownership was drifting 
into the hands of a few great famiHes. With Diaz gone the 
country entered upon a period of civil war and repeated 
revolution. Madero, Huerta, and Carranza in turn held 
the office of president. None could restore order. 

Europeans and Americans have invested large sums of 
money in Mexican mines, ranches, railroads, and oil wells. 
Many of these properties were ruined by Mexicans. 
American citizens were carried off by bandits and held for 
ransom. Others were ruthlessly murdered. Mexican 
bandits even crossed the border and killed Americans on 
American soil. A demand arose that the United States 
send an army into Mexico. Both Presidents Taft and 
Wilson refused to do this. To do so they held would 



376^ OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 

mean war with all its evils. They said Mexico could 
hardly be held responsible as no real government existed 
there. This view roused much bitter criticism in and out 
of Congress. When war between the two countries threat- 
ened, Argentine, Brazil, and Chile brought about an agree- 
ment. This was the so-called "A. B. C." intervention. ^i^ 

597. New meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. The 
settlement of the questions in Santo Domingo, Venezuela, 
and Mexico proves that a new meaning is being given to 
the Monroe Doctrine. It shows that we will not allow 
armed force to be used against Latin-American states for 
collecting debts unless they refuse to arbitrate. This 
seems to mean that we should control the money of such 
a government when this happens. It also shows that 
Argentine, Brazil, and Chile are becoming partners with us 
in sustaining the Monroe Doctrine and keeping the peace 
between the countries of the Western Hemisphere. These 
great nations are anxious to help in bettering the world. 

598. The Pan-American Congress. James G. Blaine, 
secretary of state under Harrison, like Clay,-^^ wanted 
the Latin-American states and the United States to 
become better friends. So in 1889, on invitation of the 
president, representatives from all these states except 
Santo Domingo came to Washington to hold a conference. 
It was the first time men from all these countries had 
been together in our land. They had no power to make 
laws, but they discussed a great many questions of com- 
mon interest and united in making recommendations to 
their governments. They agreed that there ought to be 
free navigation of all American rivers, uniform systems 
of weights and measures an international banking system. 

The second Pan-American Congress met in 1901 in 
Mexico City. It recommended that the countries be 
compelled to arbitrate and that a Pan-American railway 



THE NEWER MONROE DOCTRINE 377 

be built. The third meeting was held in Rio de Janiero 
(1906), and the fourth one in Buenos Aires (1910). It 
recommended that all money claims between American 
nations should be subject to arbitration. A fifth meeting 
was to be held in 191 5, but the World War prevented it. 
599. Pan-American Union. The Pan-American Union 
was created by the first Pan-American Congress (§598). 
It is composed of representatives of the Latin-American 
states living in Washington, and our secretary of state 
is chairman of its board of directors. Its headquarters 
are a building in Washington donated by Andrew Carnegie. 
The purpose of the Union is to keep up friendly feelings and 
to develop comrrierce between the countries' members. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 8-27-849; Ha- 
worth, Reconstruction, chap, vii; Wilson, Division and Reunion, chap, 
xiv; Latane, America as a World Power, chaps, ii-vi, ix, xi, xii, xiv-xvi; 
Crow, America and the Philippines; Fish, American Diplomacy; 
Johnson, The Panama Canal and Commerce; Hart, The Monroe Doc- 
trine; Ross, The Changing Chinese; Steiner, The Japanese Invasion; 
Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chaps, xxix-xxxii. 

References for pupils: Morris, The War with Spain; Bowman, 
South America; Cause and Carr, The Story of Panama; Dewey, Auto- 
biography of George Dewey; Hart, Source Book, Nos. 140-145; James, 
Readings in American History, chaps, xxix, xxx, Nos. 100-102; FHnt, 
Marching with Gomez; Barrows, History of the Philippines. 

Fiction: Kipling, Captains Courageous; Stratemeyer, Under Dewey 
at Manila; Reeve, The Panama Pilot; Burks, Barbara's Philippine 
Journey. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Imagine yourself one of Hobson's men. Write an account of 
"Bottling up the Spaniards at Santiago." 2. Write about "My trip' 
to the Panama Canal." 3. You are a Chinese student in an American 
university. Write a letter to your sister in China telling of the day's 
experiences at your university. 4. Your home is on a ranch near the 
Mexican border and you are visiting a friend in Chicago. You are 
trying to show him why the United States should send troops into 
Mexico. Topic, "An experience with Mexican bandits." 



CHAPTER XXIV 
ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

IMMIGRATION 

600. Civil War period. During the Civil War the tide 
of immigration fell to less than 100,000 per year, but by 
1873 it had again risen to almost a half million. The 
government treated these people very kindly. They 
were allowed to take up farms in the West. They were 
also allowed to pay their way over by making contracts 
in advance with employers. This law produced bad 
effects and after four years was repealed. 

The great grain-growing states of the Northwest 
benefited by the "incoming" of Swedes, Norwegians, and 
Danes. It began in the sixties and continued for forty 
years. From 1870 to 1880 over 650,000 arrived. They 
settled mostly in Minnesota, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, 
developing comfortable farms, and in every way proving 
themselves worthy American citizens. 

601. Railroads and immigration. The connection of 
railroads with immigration is very close. As the roads 
were pushed into the Northwest during the sixties, 
seventies, and eighties, great regions were opened to 
settlement. The railroads wanted this country settled and 
turned into farms as quickly as possible. They wanted 

■to get pay for carrying the produce of the region. They 
sent agents to Northern Europe to persuade immigrants 
to come over. The plan was very successful. The rapid 
development of the Northwest was largely due to the 
railroads. 

378 



IMMIGRATION 379 

602. The change in immigration. Many of the early 
immigrants from Northern Europe went to the new West. 
Others became laborers on the railroads and other building 
enterprises. A third large group turned to the factories 
and mines. In 1880 practically one-third of the people 
in our factories and mines were immigrants. 

About 1890 the number of people coming from Northern 
Europe began to fall off, a growing number coming from 
Southern and Eastern Europe. During the years 1880-90, 
half a million Russians, Poles, and Italians, came knocking 
at our gates. But this was only a beginning. In a little 
while the stream became a torrent. Many Slavs, as 
well as Jews, Hungarians, Greeks, Roumanians, and 
Turks were crowding into our big cities. In one year 
(1914) immigration reached the astonishing figure of 
1,218,000.-" 

603. Why the later immigrants went to the cities. By 
the end of the nineteenth century the free or cheap land 
had all been taken up. Anyway, these newcomers did 
not understand farm life in America. They were used to 
the village life of Eastern Europe, so they settled in the 
cities. They found work in factories, foundries, ship- 
yards, mines, and steel mills. The employers were glad 
to get them, for they were used to low pay and hard work. 
While they have contributed greatly to the upbuilding 
and wealth of the country, their coming to America gave 
rise to serious problems. 

604. The effect upon cities. The various nationaHties 
settled in separate groups in the cities. In a little while 
every city had its Italian, its Polish, or its Roumanian 
quarter, and so on. These people built churches, founded 
newspapers, and started their own stores and banks. Polit- 
ical leaders soon appeared among them, "bosses" who 



380 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

turned their votes this way or that for their own gain. 
Soon poHtical parties were struggHng with one another 
to get their votes. This is bad not only for America but 
also for the foreign citizens. It keeps them in groups 
and prevents their becoming familiar with American 
institutions and American ideals. 

Our great cities are now largely made up of foreigners. 
In 1910, 40 per cent of the people in New York City, 
35 per cent of the people in Chicago, and 29 per cent of 
the people in Cleveland were foreign-born. These per- 
centages increased steadily. 

605. Restrictions. The ' shifting in immigration from 
Northern to Southern and Eastern Europe startled our 
people. A demand arose that immigration be made more 
difficult. As long as there was a supply of cheap or free 
land the newcomers could find a place on the soil without 
harming anyone. But when the tide turned to factory, 
mill, and mine, the American workman, whose standard 
of living was different, at once felt that it harmed him. 
He said the immigrants kept wages down by working for 
what pay would starve him. 

American labor first objected to the Chinese. The 
feeling in California has long been bitter toward them, 
not only because of their race, but because they work 
for such low wages. As a consequence a law was passed 
(1882) shutting off Chinese immigration for ten years. 
This is still in force. Lunatics, anarchists, and persons 
having contagious diseases are also shut out by law. 
In 1917 Congress excluded people who cannot read their 
own language. After the World War the inflow of 
immigrants was as great as before. 

606. Japanese immigration. On the Pacific coast the 
Japanese question is a live one. The labor unions object 



IMMIGRATION 3^1 

strongly to the presence of the Japanese. They say the 
Japanese, Hke the Chinese, work for a low wage and thus 
drive out American workmen. In 1906 the San Francisco 
school board ordered all Japanese and Chinese children 
put in separate schools. The Japanese government 
immediately protested, and a good deal of bad feeHng was 
stirred up between the two countries. President Roose- 
velt got the matter smoothed out, but there is no doubt 
that California was acting within her rights. Again, in 
1 913 California passed a law forbidding Japanese to own 
land in that state. The law still stands, although Japan 
has protested. The Federal government is in a difficult 
position. While it makes treaties with foreign powers, 
it has no power to control the state in such matters. 
Japan does not want her workmen to come here and has 
agreed not to let them come. Yet she feels that the 
United States regards her people as an inferior race and 
resents any action that appHes to them and not to other 
peoples. 

607. Naturalizaticn. When an immigrant wishes to 
become a citizen of the United States, he must go through 
certain steps in the courts. He files with the clerk of 
the court a statement that he wants to be "naturalized." 
He must have been in the country at least three years 
before he can do this. In this statement he must give his 
name, age, and occupation, tell when he arrived in the 
country, and agree to give up all loyalty to his former 
ruler and country. He then receives his "first papers." 
After two years he files a petition asking for full citizen- 
ship. He must have two witnesses who have known him 
and will swear that he has behaved himself and is loyal 
to this country. After another ninety days he is given 
his "second papers" and becomes a full-fledged citizen. ^'^ 



382 



ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 



Only people of the white race or of African descent may 
be naturaHzed. Anarchists and polygamists are excluded. 




TAKING THE OATH OF CITIZENSHIP 



608. The immigration problem. .America faces a real 
problem in this immigration question. The early immi- 
grants from Northern Europe knew something of govern- 
ment by representatives of the people and were of the same 
race as those already here. They easily adjusted them- 
selves to American ideals. It was not so easy for those 
that followed them. Many of these people were unable 
to read and write. They knew little of free government 
and were used to low standards of living. It was hard 
for them to become Americans. This was not their fault; 
they wanted to learn, but, crowded together in the big 
cities and employed as cheap labor, they had little chance 
to learn the true spirit of America. 

609. Americanization. A good deal is being done 
today for the "Americanizing" of these people. All 
children of school age must be in school, learning about 



ORGANIZED LABOR 383 

American institutions and ideals and learning to love 
America. In the large cities night schools are being 
established for the grown-up men and women where they 
can learn to read the English language and to think in 
English. There is an earnest endeavor to make the 
immigrants feel that America wants them to have a fair 
chance to earn good wages and to live according to Ameri- 
can ways. America believes in the "square deal." But 
the immigrant must be taught that we have orderly ways 
of doing things and that violence will not be allowed. 
The "old" Americans should set an example of fair- 
mindedness and patriotism to the "new" Americans. 
America is not simply a country in which people may get 
wealth, a sort of boarding-house for all nations. It is a 
land struggling to show the world that "a government of 
the people, for the people, and by the people" can be 
maintained. In this task it has a right to ask the help of 
every American, "old" or "new." 

ORGANIZED LABOR 

610. Labor before the Civil War. In the early days 
of the Republic the rule was for each workman to deal 
directly with his employer. There were very few unions, 
and these were found only among skilled workers (§386). 
The spirit of the times was hostile to unions, and strikes 
were unlawful. Leaders of strikes were sent to jail. 
They were declared guilty of plotting. By 1845 these 
early unions had about died out. 

611. Effect of the Civil War. The Civil War caused a 
great rise in prices. This result follows all wars. Wages 
did not keep up with prices, and the workers found it 
harder and harder to live. So again they began to form 
unions. Three great unions of railway workers and about 



384 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

fifty other associations were organized. A national 
organization, the Knights of Labor, was formed which 
took in all workers without regard to their trades. This 
was a powerful organization claiming at one time (1886) 
at least 730,000 members. It organized a number of 
strikes. These failed, and trouble arose between the 
skilled and unskilled workers. This order soon lost its 
power. 

612. The American Federation of Labor. The Ameri- 
can Federation of Labor took the place of the Knights 
of Labor. This organization is made up of different trade 
unions. Each city has its own printers', carpenters', and 
other trades' unions. These unions are united in state 
federations. Each city, too, has its central labor union 
made up of all the unions in the city. The Federation 
does not include unskilled workers. Above all is the 
national organization composed of men from the different 
unions. This order has grown in membership from 
200,000 in 1890 to 3,260,000 in 1919. About 10 per cent 
of the people listed in gainful occupations in the whole 
country are members. The four great railroad brother- 
hoods, numbering a quarter of a million men, are not 
rnembers of the Federation. In counting the number of 
unionized men in the country they should be added. 

613. Collective bargaining. The main thing the Fed- 
eration of Labor stands for is "collective bargaining." 
The union chooses men to meet the employers and discuss 
such questions as hours, wages, and conditions of work. 
If these men from the union agree with the employers on 
certain wages and hours, all union men are bound to work 
on the terms thus fixed. The union men believe they get 
better wages and shorter hours in this way than they 
would if each man bargained for himself. Many serious 



ORGANIZED LABOR 385 

questions have grown out of the practice of collective 
bargaining. 

614. Organized employers. The growth of labor 
unions led employers to organize. These men have to 
do with steel making, coal mining, and the making of 
clothing and many other things. Many of these asso- 
ciations were united in 1893 into the National Association 
of Manufacturers. Later the Citizens' Industrial Asso- 
ciation of America was formed. Still later came the 
National Manufacturers' Association. Thus we see that 
both labor and capital are organized. 

615. Strikes. When workers fail to get what they 
want from their employer, they often quit work in a 
body. This is a strike. They believe the employer can 








STRIKE RIOT 



be brought to terms in this way because every day the' 
plant is shut down he loses money. To make the strike 
14 



386 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

a success they try to keep non-union men from taking 
their places. This leads to trouble and sometimes to 
violence. The union officers advise the members against 
violence, as they know that the public does not approve 
of it. When a strike is called at a factory, some union 
men stay near the factory, so as to warn non-union men 
or strike-breakers away. This is called "picketing." 
Sometimes employers close their factories to force the 
men to come to their terms. This is a "lockout." 

Between 1900 and 1910 there were many strikes in the 
United States. In coal mining (1908-17) each worker 
lost on an average thirty-eight days a year because of 
strikes. In 1914 the average loss was sixty-eight days.-'*^ 
Some of the costliest strikes in recent years were the great 
railway strike of 1894, the strike of hard-coal miners of 
Pennsylvania in 1902, the strike of the Colorado coal 
miners in 1914 and 191 5, and the strike of the textile 
workers at Lowell, Massachusetts, in 191 2. 

616. The Chicago strike of 1886. The strike of 50,000 
workers in Chicago in 1886 shows how hard it is to keep 
down violence in time of strikes. The city held a nest 
of anarchists who had been driven out of Europe and had 
come here to spread their doctrines of destruction and 
murder. Anarchists are opposed to all government and 
believe in using any kind of violence to destroy it. At a 
big public meeting held in the Haymarket a bomb was 
thrown that killed seven policemen and wounded sixty 
others. Some of the anarchists were caught, and after a 
trial four were hanged. These anarchists had no connec- 
tion with the unions. They had taken advantage of the 
disorder caused by the strike to do their deadly work. 

617. Arbitration. The strike is industrial warfare. It 
always costs the workers and employers great sums of 



ORGANIZED LABOR 387 

money, but it costs the public still more. This fact has 
led to a demand that some way to settle such disputes 
besides strikes should be found. When the hard-coal 
strike came on in Pennsylvania in 1902, the people 
demanded arbitration. This meant that somebody like 
the president should appoint a board of judges to study 
the whole question and give a decision as to what the 
miners should have. The miners were willing, but the 
owners were not. President Roosevelt said, "No man 
and no group of men can so exercise their rights as to 
deprive the nation of the things necessary and vital to 
the common life." He appointed a board of arbitration, 
and the owners had to submit their case to it. A decision 
was given, and the miners went to work. 

Many states have boards of arbitration. The Federal 
government, too, has made several laws providing for 
settling labor disputes. One of them was the Erdman 
Arbitration Act to cover strikes on railways. Another 
was the Newlands Act.^^^ In 1913 the new Department of 
Labor was created by Congress. The secretary of labor 
was given power to act as "mediator" in strike troubles. 

618. The boycott and the injunction. Sometimes the 
union asks people to stop buying goods from an employer 
whose men are on a strike. This is a "boycott." Such 
an employer is said to be "unfair" to union labor. A 
famous case of this kind occurred in 1903. When the 
United Hatters of North America started a boycott against 
a certain company, the Supreme Court of the United 
States declared this boycott unlawful. 

An injunction is an order issued by a judge telling some- 
body that he must not do a certain thing. If he dis- 
obeys, the judge will punish him. Labor unions are 
opposed to the use of injunctions. They say it gives the 



388 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

judge too much power in labor disputes and that it is 
used to prevent workers from getting their rights. They 
complain because juries are not used in injunction cases in 
the courts. In 1907 a judge issued an injunction ordering 
the American Federation of Labor not to print the name 
of the Bucks Stove and Range Company in an "unfair" 
list. It disobeyed the order, and the officers of the union 
were arrested. Mr. Gompers, the president of the Fed- 
eration, said the order took away the right of free speech 
and free press (Amendment I). There followed a long, 
tiresome lawsuit without definite result. 

619. The Clayton Act. The labor unions for years 
kept demanding new laws on such subjects as picket- 
ing, boycott, and injunction. In 1914 Congress passed 
the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, which deals with these sub- 
jects as well as with trusts. This law declared that labor 
unions could not be prosecuted as trusts. If this law 
had been enforced earlier it is likely that the decision in 
the Hatters' case would have been different. Second, it 
limits the kind of disputes in which injunctions can be 
used. Third, if a man is arrested for disobeying an 
injunction, this law gives him the right to call for a jury 
trial. Fourth, it declares that strikes, picketing, and 
boycotts do not violate any Federal law (§§615, 618). 
The Clayton Act was a great victory for the unions. 

620. The unions and politics. One might think that 
the labor unions with their large numbers would form a 
political party and elect their own men to office. Some of 
the union leaders think this the best thing to do, but the 
majority of them, led by Mr. Gompers, oppose this. 
They think it is much better to decide what laws they 
want and then go to the big political parties and offer 
them the labor vote if they will promise to enact them. 



FACTORY ACTS 389 

FACTORY ACTS 

621. Child labor. Children have worked in factories 
from their very beginning, but thoughtful people have 
always felt it ^ bad custom (§374).^^^ It not only kept 
the children out of school, but it stunted their 'growth 
and took work away from grown-up men and women. 
The opposition to it got so strong that by 19 13 thirty- 
one states had passed laws against it. Some states have 
been very slow to protect the children. Congress placed 
a tax of 10 per cent on goods intended for interstate 
commerce if they are made in factories where children 
under fourteen are employed (1919). A Children's 
Bureau was established in 191 2 by act of Congress. It 
is to look after the welfare of children and has done 
valuable work. Several states, too, have passed laws 
limiting the hours women may work and keeping them 
out of certain occupations. 

622. Safety. Many states now have laws requiring 
good ventilation, plenty of Hght, and proper sanitary 
arrangements in factories. Machinery likely to catch 
the worker and injure him must be covered. The states 
keep inspectors whose business it is to go among the 
factories and see these safety measures carried out. 

623. Workingmen's compensation. In spite of all 
that can be done to make the workers safe, there is still 
a shocking number of accidents each year. Men are 
crushed, torn, crippled, and killed in large numbers. ^i^ 
In 191 7 over 3,000 railway employees were killed and over 
156,000 injured. 

In the old days when a man got hurt his only hope of 
getting anything from the employer to help him live and 
keep his family was to go to law with the employer. 
This was too slow and costly a method. Now it is changed. 



390 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

Forty-two states, the territories of Alaska and Hawaii, and 
Porto Rico all now have "Workingmen's Compensation 
Acts." A half million employees of the Federal govern- 
ment likewise are protected by laws of this kind. These 
laws say how much the worker's family shall receive if 
he is killed. 220 By these means the worker can get good 
hospital care and get back to his work in a short time. 
If he dies, his family will not have to break up. It is 
much better than the old way. 221 

624. Welfare work. Many employers realize that 
people will do better work if they are contented. Hence 
they carry on what is called "welfare work." This takes 
the form, in part, of a community clubhouse which is 
free to all the workmen of the company. In the club- 
house are bowling alleys, swimming pools, reading and 
visiting rooms. Here are bands, dramatic clubs, and 
debating clubs. Here, too, the young people meet for 
their dances and social affairs. The company pays 
visiting nurses to go to the homes of the employees who 
are injured or sick. Some companies maintain systems 
of insurance and pension systems for their workers. 

THE TRUSTS 

625. What trusts are. Before 1880 if a man had a few 
hundred dollars and wanted to start a factory he formed 
a partnership with some other man and began business. 
He met plenty of competition, but the competition came 
from firms Hke his own. The product was small, and the 
profits were small. Later, certain shrewd men saw that 
if they could get the stronger firms to combine, the com- 
bination could break down the weaker firms and control 
the industry. A big factory or a big mill could produce 
goods more cheaply than a small factory or a small mill. 



THE TRUSTS 391 

It could use more labor-saving machinery; could buy its 
raw materials and fuel in big lots; and could get lower 
rates from the railroads for carrying its goods. This 
was the beginning of "big business." 

626. Growth of trusts. John D. Rockefeller, of Cleve- 
land, persuaded forty oil-producing concerns to put them- 
selves in the hands of a board of "trustees" who were 
to run the whole business. This new company was the 
Standard Oil Company. It was the first trust. Pro- 
ducers of sugar, whisky, cottonseed oil, rubber products, 
and dozens of other articles followed this example. 
Before 1904 something like 300 combinations had been 
formed. In 1904 there were over 1,900 companies, each 
with a capital of over $1,000,000. By 1909 the number 
had grown to over 3,000. Hundreds of shoe factories, 
woolen mills, sugar refineries, and other plants were 
closed down and their business turned over to the big 
producers. Thus the number of business firms grew 
smaller. The biggest concern, the biggest in the world, . 
the United States Steel Corporation, had a capital of 
$1,400,000,000, controlled 180 companies, and employed 
over 200,000 men. 

627. Combinations of railroads. Before the Civil 
War railroads were not more than fifty to one hundred 
miles in length. They usually connected neighboring 
cities. But before the war combination of these lines had 
started. Men like Cornelius Vanderbilt saw the advan- 
tage of connecting different roads into one system. In 
this way the New York Central, the Pennsylvania, and 
the Baltimore- and Ohio systems were built up. Cities 
Hke New York and Chicago, Pittsburgh and St. Louis, 
were connected by single railroad systems. The Civil 
War checked the union of roads, but it began again soon 



392 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 

after the war. During the eighties and nineties railroad 
building went on rapidly, and combining kept on. There 
are now something like 1,300 railroad lines in the country, 
but most of them are only parts of some great system. " 
It is said there are now only five or six great railroad sys- 
tems and that they control all of the lines in the country. 222 

628. What the people thought. As the process of 
building big business went on, the people became angry. 
They said a small producer had no chance against the 
big companies and that the big companies used unfair 
methods. For instance, the big companies compelled 
the railroads to carry their goods at lower rates than they 
charged the little ones. This was true. Yet while the 
big companies produced more cheaply, the people got no 
benefit from it in the form of lower prices. The men 
who formed the trusts kept all that was saved and piled 
up fortunes of millions of dollars. 

629. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act. In 1890 Congress 
passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The object was to 
prevent these great combinations from getting in their 
hands all the business in any one line. This would check 
trade. Presidents Harrison, Cleveland, and McKinley 
did little to enforce this law. But Presidents Roosevelt 
and Taft made a big fight against the trusts. In only a 
few cases did the government win. The most important 
victories were the Standard Oil case and the American 
Tobacco Company case. The Supreme Court of the 
United States ordered these companies broken up into 
a number of smaller companies which would compete with 
one another. But no reduction in price followed. In 
1 9 14 Congress made the law stronger and clearer (§619). 

630. What we have learned. Out of all this discussion 
and lawmaking two points have become clear. First, 



THE TRUSTS 393 

big business is not necessarily bad because it is big. It 
seems to be a natural and proper development so long as 
it keeps within the law and does not become a monopoly. 
Second, it is also pretty clear that we cannot hope to 
destroy big business nor to prevent its development. 
But a way should be found to control it for the benefit of 
all the people. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 765-827; Ogg, 
National Progress, chaps, iv, vii; Latane, America as a World Power, 
chap, xvii; Ferine, The Story of the Trust Companies; McCabe, Media- 
tion, Investigation, and Arbitration in Industrial Disputes; Ross, The 
Old World and the New; Steiner, On the Trail of the Immigrant; Bogart, 
Economic History, chap, xxxi; Ely, Monopolies and Trusts; Hart, 
Contemporaries, IV, No. 201 ; Henderson, Citizens in Industry. 

References for pupils: Antin, They Who Knock at Our Gates; 
Warman, The Story of the Railroad; Hughes, Community Civics; Ashley, 
The New Civics; Magruder, American Government; James, Readings in 
American History, chap, xxvii. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. You have been in the United States a month. You came from 
Eastern Europe arid are writing back home. Topic, "My first 
month in America." 2. Topic, "How I became a naturalized citizen." 
3. Topic, "Why I came to America." 4. You are supposed to 
belong to a labor union, and yovi are trying to show a fellow workman 
why he should join. Topic, "Why I belong to the union." Then 
give the other man's views in a composition entitled "Why I do not 
belong to the vmion." 5. Topic "Why I am against child labor," 
or "Why I hke to work in the factory," or "The adventures of a tele- 
graph messenger boy." 



CHAPTER XXV 
POLITICAL REFORMS 

CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT 

631. The old way. When a man wanted to be elected 
to an office he went among the voters of his party and 
asked them to favor him for office; that is, he tried to 
secure the nomination. Of course other men in the same 
party wanted the same office, so some way had to be found 
to decide which man got the nomination. In the early 
days the leading politicians and office-holders settled the 
question of nominations in a meeting of their own called 
a caucus. But about the time of Andrew Jackson (§357) 
people got tired of having candidates picked for them, 
and they began holding conventions for making nomi- 
nations. After all parties had made their nominations 
in this way the election was held. Years later people 
came to believe these conventions were run by the bosses. 
They decided to hold nominating elections and choose 
the candidates themselves. 

632. Primary elections. When a party holds an elec- 
tion to decide who its candidates shall be, that election 
is called a primary. During the period 1904-12 almost 
all the states established the system of holding primaries 
under state authority. When a voter goes to a primary 
election, he must make his choice from the members of 
his own party. The men thus chosen are the candidates 
of that party for office. Later, at a regular election, 
the voters choose from among the candidates of the 
different parties. 

394 



CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT 395 

633. Presidential preference primaries. Twenty-one 
states now give. the voters a chance to say whom they 
desire as candidates for the presidency. This is called 
the presidential preference primary. But national norrii- 
nating conventions are still held. 

634. Ballot reform. In 1888 a new system of voting 
was introduced. It was called the "Australian" system 
and is still in use. Under the old system people crowded 
around the ballot box and a citizen could not vote with- 
out' the bystanders knowing for whom he voted. This 
made bribery easy, as the man who gave the bribe could 
follow the voter right up to the box and see that he 
voted as he was paid to do. Then anybody could print 
ballots and hand them out, and the ballot box was open. 
This made corruption at the ballot box easy. 

Under the Australian system the voter must register 
or get his name on the list of voters before election day. 
Then the state prints the ballots with the names of the 
candidates on them. But, most important, the ballot is 
secret; a voter may cast his ballot without other people 
knowing how he votes. Every ballot is handed out by 
an officer and is numbered. The voter steps into a 
little booth and marks the names of his choice. Then 
the ballot is put into the ballot box. Later the ballots 
are counted. 223 

635. The short ballot. There are so many names on 
a ballot that the voter knows only a few of them per- 
sonally. This has led to a movement to make the ballot 
more simple by making it shorter. The idea is to put 
on the ballot the names of the men running for the most 
important offices and then leave them to appoint their 
helpers. This shortens the ballot. Some cities and a 
few states have made this change. 



396 POLITICAL REFORMS 

636. Direct legislation. In spite of the effort to have 
a real democracy in this country, many people have 
felt that things too often go wrong. Officers sometimes 
refuse to do what the people want and again they do 
things that the people do not like. People said that 
the members of the legislatures obeyed the "bosses" 
and the "interests" rather than the people who had 
elected them. For this reason three measures known 
as the initiative, referendum, and recall were invented 
and put to work. 

637. The initiative. By this law a given number of 
the voters can ask the legislature to pass a certain law. 
Then if the legislature fails to do this, the matter goes 
back to the voters, and tTiey say in an election whether 
they want the law or not. 

638. The referendum. In the initiative we have 
pointed out one way in which a law may be referred to 
the voters. Another is this — if a legislature passes a 
law that a certain number of the voters oppose, they 
can get up a petition and prevent the enforcement of the 
law until the people can say in an election whether they 
want it or not. South Dakota, the first state to use 
this system, adopted it in 1898. Now twenty-two 
states use the initiative and referendum. 

639. The recall. The recall is a plan to get officers 
with whom the people are dissatisfied out of office before 
the end of their term. Usually, under this law, when a 
certain percentage of the voters sign a petition asking 
for the recall of an officer, he must resign or must submit 
himself to the voters at a second election. Oregon, in 
1908, was the first state to adopt the recall. Ten states 
since that time have adopted this law, but in four of 
them it does not apply to judges. Some of these states 



CITY GOVERNMENT 397 

are Louisiana, Washington, Arizona, California, and 
Michigan. 

640. Direct election of United States senators. The 

Constitution provides (Art. I, §3) that the legislatures 
of the states shall choose the United States senators. 
People became dissatisfied with this system and changed 
it. They said it was not democratic. So in 19 13 the 
Seventeenth Amendment was adopted by which the 
senators are elected by the people. 

CITY GOVERNMENT 

641. The problem. In 1880 less than one-fourth of 
the whole country lived in cities; in 19 10 more than 
one-half of all our people were found there. Our ten 
largest cities contain over 13 per cent of the entire popu- 
lation of the country. This growth of the cities has 
created many serious problems, none of them more 
serious than the problem of how to govern the city. 
There are so many things that a city government must 
do. It must look after schools, paving, Hghting, water 
supply, police, sewers, and finances. The average citizen 
knows little about these things and can learn but Httle 
about them. So he leaves the management of the city's 
affairs to its officers and pays Httle attention to them. 
This failure of the citizens gives bosses and political 
rings a chance to run the affairs of the city about as 
they please. For this reason we have had much bad 
city government. It is clear that we have had less 
success with city than with either state or national 
government. 

642. The city and the state. All cities are under the 
control of the state. The city government may do only 
such things as the state legislature permits it to do. 



398 POLITICAL REFORMS 

The cities are usually put into four classes according to 
size. There is a certain type of government in all cities 
of the same class. The paper in which the powers of 
the city and the duties of the officers are described is 
called a charter. A few states allow cities to frame 
their own charters, but they must be approved by the 
legislature. 

643. Ordinary type of city government. Most cities 
have a mayor and a council, both elected by the voters 
of the city. 224 The council makes the city's laws, and 
it is the mayor's business to enforce them. There has 
been a great deal of complaint about graft and waste 
of money in city government. Many people thought 
this was due to the form of city government, so they 
devised a new plan. 

644. The commission plan. The new plan provided 
that commissioners, usually five, should be elected. The 
commissioners make the city laws and control the admin- 
istration. Their duties are thus both law-making and 
law-enforcing. Each commissioner is responsible for 
some branch of city government, as one looks after 
the poHce and fire departments, another streets and 
alleys, and so on. The initiative, referendum, and recall, 
in some form, usually go with the commission plan of 
city government. This plan was first used in Galveston, 
Texas. 

It was found that this new form of city government 
was better than the ordinary form. By 1918, 646 cities 
had adopted this plan. Among them were such impor- 
tant places as Buffalo, Denver, Cleveland, Dallas, and 
Newark. Later another improvement was made. 

645. City manager plan. The city manager plan is 
like the commission plan except that it brings in a trained 



SOCIALISM 399 

expert to manage the business affairs of the city. He is 
not supposed to be a poHtician. He is a business man. 
He must know how to run the city to make Hfe and 
property safe and give the people the most for their 
money. The commissioners choose the city manager, 
pay him a good salary, and make him responsible for all 
administration. When the commissioners choose such 
a manager, they are supposed to select the best man to 
be found, no matter whether he lives in the city or not. 
The manager is expected to show good results just as 
is the manager of a factory, a mine, or any other large 
business. He is given the right to appoint all of his 
helpers and is held responsible for their work. In 1918, 
168 cities had hired city managers. Some of these cities 
were Wichita, Dayton, Norfolk, Grand Rapids, Dubuque, 
and Kalamazoo. 

646. Reason to be encouraged. All these changes in 
city government are encouraging. There has been a 
vast improvement in city affairs all over the country. 
They show that the people want good government in 
the city and that they are willing to make experiments 
in order to get it. But it is well to remember that no 
form of popular government can be successful unless the 
citizens take an active interest in political matters. It 
is also plain that no form of city government can succeed 
without honest officers. 

SOCIALISM 

647. The rise of socialism. Socialism appeared first 
in France during the great French Revolution (1789-98). 
It was brought to this country about the middle of the 
century by immigrants from Germany. The unrest of 
the eighties and nineties in the labor world caused many 



400 POLITICAL REFORMS 

working people to turn to socialism. The feeling that 
the poor man has a hard time and little chance to gain 
wealth, while the rich man lives in luxury and has all the 
good things of life, led them to think the whole industrial 
world is wrong. They do not reaHze that the great 
majority of well-to-do people were once poor. 

648. What socialism teaches. Socialism teaches that 
the ownership of tools, such as machinery, railroads, and 
factories, puts great riches into the hands of the owners 
or capitalists. It says that capitalists are few while 
workmen number millions. It objects to a few persons 
being rich and many poor. 

What does socialism propose to do about it? It pro- 
poses that the government own and operate all means of 
production, land, railroads, factories, mines, and machinery. 
The capitalist as an owner would be entirely wiped out. 
All workers would work for the state. The socialists 
think this would do away with poverty and misery. 
Most people do not believe this. 

Not only socialists but thoughtful people everywhere 
want to see suffering and poverty grow less. The great 
reform movements of the last fifty years show that 
Americans are determined to make conditions better for 
the poor, but nothing will take the place of honesty, 
intelligence, and hard work. 

649. The Socialist party. The Socialist party was 
organized in 1898. In 1900 it nominated a candidate 
for the presidency and polled 87,000 votes. Since that 
time it has regularly taken part in politics. In 191 2 
almost 900,000 votes were cast for Eugene V. Debs, its 
candidate for the presidency. 

The Socialists have made a fight to get control of the 
American Federation of Labor, but so far have failed. 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



401 



THE FIRST WILSON ADMINISTRATION (1913-17) 

650. The Underwood Tariff. The years from 1896 to 
19 13 were filled with earnest discussion of reform. Some 
important reform laws had 
been passed before Wilson 
became president. In the 
campaign of 191 2 the Demo- 
crats promised a reduction of 
the tariff if they were elected. 
Wilson called a special session 
of Congress to revise the tariff 
laws. A bill reducing the tariff 
rates on food, clothing, steel 
products, sugar, cotton goods, 
wool, and other articles was 
proposed by Representative 
Underwood of Alabama. After 
months of discussion it was 
passed. This meant a loss of 
many millions to the govern- 
ment. The Democrats promised to make up the loss by 
an income tax. 

651. Income Tax. The income tax law of 1893 had 
been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, 
but in 1 9 13 the Constitution was changed by the 
Sixteenth Amendment to permit such a law. 
Congress now passed another income tax law which 
more than made up the loss caused by reducing the 
tariff. 

652. Federal Reserve Act. About every twenty years 
the country has suffered from a financial panic. When banks 
suspected a panic was coming, each bank gathered in all 
the money it could get in order to be able to meet expected 




WOODROW WILSON 



402 



POLITICAL REFORMS 



demands upon it. Each bank had to look out for itself, 
and there was no way of combining the strength of the 
banks to resist the panic. This lessened the amount of 
money circulating among the people. It was believed, 
too, that the money and credit of the whole country 
tended to collect in the New York banks to such an extent 
as to give New York control of all the finances of the 
nation. 

To meet this situation the Federal Reserve Act was 
passed in 1 913. It placed all the national banks under 
the Federal Reserve Board and arranged to combine the 
strength of all the banks. These united banks can keep 
more money in circulation if a panic threatens. It 
established twelve reserve banks in twelve districts 
throughout the country. This prevents the money from 
being drawn to New York. The Federal Reserve cities 

are Boston, New York, Phila- 
delphia, Cleveland, Rich- 
mond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. 
Louis, MinneapoHs, Kansas 
City, Dallas, and San Fran- 
cisco. 

Other important acts of this 
period were the Farm Loan 
Bank Act (§709), the Clayton 
Act (§619), and the " Wait-a- 
Bit" treaties (§593). 

653. Trouble with Mexico. 
In 191 6, after the bandit 
Villa had killed seventeen 
Americans in New Mexico, 
President Wilson ordered a small army under General 
Pershing to capture Villa. -^ The president of Mexico 




JOHN J. PERSHING 



WILSON'S ADMINLSTRATION 403 

strongly opposed the sending of American soldiers to his 
country and ordered the Mexican army to stop General 
Pershing's advance. War seemed certain. But when 
Carranza saw that Wilson was in earnest, he proposed a 
conference. The Americans agreed and terms were 
fixed. Our troops then withdrew from Mexico. Trouble 
with Mexico continued until 1920, when Carranza was 
overthrown and better relations were estabHshed between 
the two countries. 

654. Purchase of the Virgin Islands. In 1917 the 
United States bought the Virgin Islands from Denmark. 
These three islands, with some smaller ones, lie east of 
Porto Rico. "6 By this purchase, by the control of Porto 
Rico, Santo Domingo, and Haiti, and by our connection 
with Cuba, we control the Caribbean Sea and can protect 
the Panama Canal from European attack. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Sliori Histo}-y, 66s, 736-744, 774, 
776, 830; Ogg, National Progress, chaps, ix, xii, xiv-xvi; Munro, Tlie 
Initiative, Referendum, and Recall; Barron, The Mexican Problem; 
Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United States; Woodburn, The 
American Republic; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chap, xxxiii; Haworth, 
America in Ferment. 

References for pupils: Garner, Government in the United States; 
Lapp, Our America; Parsons, The Land of Fair Play; Hughes, Com- 
munity Civics; Ashley, The New Civics; James, Readings in American 
History, No. 105. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. You are an immigrant from Poland and have been naturalized. 
Yesterday you cast your first vote in America. Topic, "How I felt 
when I cast my first ballot." 2. "Why I should Hke to be a fire- 
fighter in a big city." 3. Your father keeps sheep on his farm in Ohio. 
Write a letter to Congressman Underwood telling him what you think 
of the Underwood tariff. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
THE GROWTH OF THE NATION 

THE GROWTH OF THE WEST— NEW STATES 

655. The territories. In 1880 two-thirds of the area of 

the United States was occupied by states; the other 




Area settled in 1870 
ryTJTTiArea settled between 
•-^^^^1870 and 1910 
Populatiua under 2 per aq. mi. not taken into account 



GROWTH OF sn.TlLLD \RI \ FROM 187O TO I9IO 

third consisted of nine territories. This vast region, 
almost a milHon square miles in extent, lay along and 
spread out on each side of the Rockies. Colorado, cut 
out of this area, was made a state in 1876. Dakota 
and Indian Territory lay far out on the plains, and 
Washington stretched westward from the Rockies to 
the Pacific. 

There were good reasons for this being the last region 
to be occupied by the steady stream of settlers. It is 



404 



NEW STATES 405 

a rough, mountainous region of little rainfall, so farm- 
ing as carried on in the Mississippi Valley could not 
be successful. But in the mountains were great deposits 
of the precious metals, and stretching along the foothills 
and in the river valleys were ranges of grasslands on 
which cattle could feed. So the miners and cattle men 
had the country to themselves as long as there was 
good farming land to be had elsewhere. 

656. Dakota.227 In 1862 Congress passed the Home- 
stead Act offering every genuine settler 160 acres of 
government land. This was to attract immigrants from 
Europe. They came. In the next ten years three 
million of them came! But not until about 1883 did 
the tide turn strongly to Dakota. In that year the 
Northern Pacific railroad was completed, and poured 
thousands of settlers into the Northwest. One author 
says, "Farmers settled in Dakota so rapidly that single 
counties with scarcely an inhabitant at the beginning of 
the summer were well populated at the end of the year." 
Before long the great "bonanza" farms were pouring 
torrents of spring wheat into the markets of the world. 
Between 1880 and 1890 the number of farms increased 
to over 60,000 and the acreage to over 15,250,000. This 
great growth led to a demand for statehood. In 1888 
the people of the territory decided to divide it into 
North Dakota and South Dakota. They were admitted 
as states the following year. 

657. Montana. Montana is rich in gold, silver, lead, 
and copper. This mineral wealth early drew settlers to 
this section, but the great forests soon attracted the 
lumbermen. Cattle raising was early developed on a 
large scale. Years later the wheat-growing region of 
the eastern part of the state came under cultivation. 



4o6 GROWTH OP THE NATION 

During the years 1880-90 the population rose from 
40,000 to 132,000. Here again we see the influence of 
the Northern Pacific upon settlements. In 1889 Mon- 
tana was admitted as a state. It is said to have the best 
school system in the country. 

658. Washington. The year 1889 saw the admission 
of another state, Washington. When we read of Wash- 
ington we think of those intrepid explorers, Lewis and 
Clark, and of the days when the Astor Fur Company 
and the Northwest Company were struggling to get 
control of the fur trade of this region. 

Only its great distance from the centers of population 
prevented the early settlement of this country. But, as 
in Dakota and Montana, with the completion of the 
Northern* Pacific the tide of settlers began to flow in. 
They found a land rich in natural resources. Fertile 
farming country, great ranges for cattle, extensive for- 
ests of fir, cedar, spruce, and yellow pine, and a climate 
and soil ideal for fruit growing are all here. 

But this is not all its natural wealth. Coal, rare in 
the Northwest, is found, and the Columbia is known 
the world over for its salmon fisheries. A look at the 
map shows us the advantages this state enjoys in the 
way of ports on Puget Sound. We see why Seattle has 
become one of the big cities on the Pacific coast. It is 
no wonder that Washington had a larger population than 
any other of the nine territories admitted between 18S0 
and 19 1 2. 

659. Wyoming (1890). The forty-third state admitted 
was Wyoming, a true mountain state. This territory 
was first entered by Verendrye, the French fur trader, 
and his sons about 1735. The first settlements grew up 
around the fur companies' trading posts. Fort Bridger 



NEW STATES 407 

on the Green River was one of these posts. Gold was 
discovered in 1867. Coal mining and cattle raising 
became the leading industries and oil fields have been 
opened. 

In 1867 the Union Pacific railroad entered Wyoming 
and laid out Cheyenne, which became the capital. 

In the northwest corner of the state lies the famous 
Yellowstone Park. Thousands of tourists every year 
visit this wonderful playground to see its natural beauties. 

660. Idaho. Another mountain and mining state is 
Idaho, admitted in 1890.^28 Three great railroad systems, 
the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Great 
Northern, cross this state. The small rainfall has pre- 
vented Idaho from becoming great in agriculture, but 
when the land is irrigated it yields most abundant crops. 
Like the other mountain states, Idaho has great forests. 

661. Utah. Utah, as we have seen, was settled by the 
Mormons (§372). The territory then belonged to Mex- 
ico, but as a result of the Mexican War it was ceded to 
the United States. The Mormons found themselves 
again subject to the laws of the Union. Other settlers 
came in, attracted by the mines and the possibilities of 
sheep raising. The soil proved to be good for growing 
sugar beets, and that became an important industry. 

In 1896, after years of debate on polygamy, Utah was 
admitted as a state. The Constitution of the state for- 
bids polygamy and says this provision cannot be changed 
without the consent of Congress. 

662. Oklahoma. After long-continued troubles with 
the Indians east of the Mississippi, the government set 
aside a vast region of about 70,000 square miles in all, 
west of Arkansas, for them. This country, called Indian 
Territory, lay in the valleys of the Red, Canadian, and 



4o8 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

Arkansas rivers. White men were ordered to keep out 
of it. But they knew of its rich lands and were con- 
tinually trying to break in and seize them. Finally the 
government bought the lands from the Indians and made 
the western half of them into Oklahoma Territory. 

663. The Oklahoma rush. A proclamation by Presi- 
dent Harrison announced that at noon, April 12, 1889. 
the territory would be open for settlers. Great crowds 
gathered along the border, anxious to rush in and estab- 
lish claims. People in wagons, on horseback, and on 
foot eagerly awaited the signal. At just twelve o'clock 
a bugle blast rang out and they started across the line 
in a mad race for land. Fifty thousand people went in 
the first day. Before night towns were laid out, and 
banks, newspapers, and stores were established. In 1907 
Oklahoma was admitted as a state. 




GUTHRIE ON THE FIRST NIGHT OF THE OPENING 

664. New Mexico and Arizona. Lying far over to 
the southwest in the arid region are New Mexico and 



NEW STATES 



409 



Arizona. The first European to enter Arizona was 
Coronado, a Spaniard, who set out in 1540 to find the 



^r^TS/i 1^-^53 



frmm 



^uf,^2%r , 



t ' A 

?L t ' tint, \ 






GUTHRIE FOUR YEARS LATER, A THRIVING AND WELL-BUILT CITY 

mysterious Seven Cities of Cibola. Instead of reaching 
cities with streets of gold and silver he found only the 
simple dwellings of the cliff-dwellers. 

De Vaca in 1536 entered the region now called New 
Mexico. 

The capital of New Mexico is the old Spanish town 
of Santa Fe.^^a 

Acquired by the United States as a result of the Mexi- 
can War, this area was organized as the territory of New 
Mexico in 1850. It included Arizona. In 1854 the 
"Gadsden Purchase" was added to it. Arizona was cut 
off and became a separate territory in 1867. This 
vast region, Arizona and New Mexico, more than six 
times as large as Indiana, is noted for its rich deposits 
of gold, silver, copper, and coal. Both of these ter- 
ritories, the last to become states, were admitted to the 



4IO 



GROWTH OF THE NATION 



-Union in 191 2. The Santa Fe and the Southern Pacific 
railroads carried settlers to these states. 

665. The vanishing frontier. All good farming land 
of the public domain had been occupied by 1900. The 
Pacific railroads were responsible for the rapid develop- 
ment of this region (§§657-661). They poured thousands 
of settlers into the West, and farms and cities took the 




COWBOYS DRIVING CATTLE FROM THE PRAIRIE PASTURAGE 

place of desert and wilderness. No longer could men in 
the East who had failed in factory or on farm pile their 
goods into a "prairie schooner" or into a freight car and 
start west to seek their fortune on free government land. 
The farmers' sons of the East and Middle West, unable 
to buy western lands, turned to the factories and the 
mines for employment. The rush to the cities was on. 
From the earliest days of America there had been 
a frontier (§108). The intrepid Scotch-Irish, pushing 



THE INDIANS 411 

through the passes of the Appalachians and rearing their 
log cabins in the Kentucky and Tennessee wilderness, 
carried the frontier westward (§110). As their descend- 
ants moved on into Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, they were 
flanked on the north by men of New England all drawn 
on by free land and free life. Roads and barbed wire 
fences, grain elevators, fruit and grain farms, and flourish- 
ing cities took the place of the frontier. The trapper 
and fur trader, the lonely gold hunter, the cowboy and 
the cattle king, gave place to the farmer and the factory 
hand. The frontier had passed like a dream in the night. 
America had entered upon a new era. 

666. The democratic influence of the frontier. Of all 
the influences bearing upon America the frontier made 
the deepest and most lasting impression. On the fron- 
tier one man was as good as another. Family name 
counted for nothing. Men earned what they got and 
intended to keep it. The frontiersmen were democratic, 
fearless, and impatient of restraint. Compelled to meet 
dangers and privations by discovering new methods of 
working and living, they became progressive. Not 
bound down by tradition, they were not afraid to try 
new ways. Thus the West has led the rest of the coun- 
try in political, social, and economic reform. The 
frontier has gone, but its spirit is still leading America 
to a bigger and better life for all her citizens. 

THE INDIANS 

667. The old way. Until 1875 the white man and 
the Indian struggled for possession of the land. The 
white man wanted it for farms, the Indians for hunting 
grounds. Many treaties were made under which the 
Indian signed away his right to the land, accepting 



412 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

money and goods in its place. But the Indian did not 
understand that the sale meant he must go away from 
the land forever and not hunt nor fish upon it (§33). 
Many times, too, the Indians said their chiefs who 
signed the treaties had no right to sell the lands of the 
tribe. So they tried to hold on, and Indian wars, one 
after another, desolated the frontier. 

In 1830 Congress tried to get the eastern Indians to 
move to the Indian Territory. They did not go will- 
ingly, but by 1850 most of them had been moved beyond 
the Mississippi. 

This removal caused much suffering and hard feeling. 
In 1836 the government bought the land of the Potta- 
wattomies, lying in northwestern Indiana. When the 
time came to move, the Indians refused to leave, and 
soldiers were called in. Eight hundred men, women, 
and children on foot started on the long trail to the 
West. The weather was hot, and the change of water 
and food brought on sickness. Across Illinois and 
Missouri the sad procession moved. When at last they 
reached their new home in Kansas, the journey had 
cost more than 150 lives. 

West of the Mississippi it was the same way. During 
the sixties and seventies fierce wars with the Sioux, 
Cheyennes, and other powerful tribes resulted in the 
defeat of the Indians. 

668. Battle of the Little Big Horn. One of the fiercest 
battles with the western Indians took place in 1876 on 
the Little Big Horn River in southern Montana. Here 
the Sioux tribe under one of its chiefs. Sitting Bull, fought 
a desperate battle with General Custer and his little army 
of 260 men. Custer and all of his men were killed, but 
the Indians were soon driven back to their own territory. ^^o 



THE INDIANS 



413 



A monument marks the spot where Custer fell. As a 
result of these wars the Indians were gathered into 
reservations or were sent to the Indian Territory. 




GENERAL CUSTER S LAST FIGHT 



669. The reservation system. The government gave 
food and clothing to the Indians who stayed within the 
bounds of the reservation. It kept up schools and tried 
to keep traders from selling the Indians firearms and 
whisky. Indeed, it treated the Indians just as if they were 
children who must be fed and clothed but must be kept 
shut up for fear they would get into mischief. This 
idle, useless, dependent life was very bad for them and 
made trouble for the government and for the Indians. 

One difficulty with the reservation plan was that when 
the Indians had settled down in a certain place it was only 
a few years until they were asked or ordered to move 
again. Tecumseh in 18 10 said to General Harrison: 
"You are continually driving the Red people; at last 
you will drive them into the great lake where they can't 
either stand or work." 



414 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

670. The new way. In 1887 Congress passed the 
Dawes Act. It gives the Indian a chance to own his 
own land and to run a farm. If he stays quietly on his 
farm for a few years, earning his living and caring for 
his family, the land becomes his. At the same time he 
becomes a citizen with the right to vote and hold office. 

The new way is successful. The Indian gets along 
much better than he did under the old plan of reserva- 
tions. Many of them now have their own farms and 
cattle ranches; some have become rich. 

671. Recent conditions. The Indian population is now 
about 325,000. It does not seem to be dying out. On 
the contrary it is slowly gaining in numbers. There are 
still 113 reservations scattered over the country. Arizona 
has the largest area of reservation land, almost 30,000 
square miles, and Oklahoma the largest Indian population, 
nearly 120,000. All the Oklahoma Indians now have 
their own land and have given up tribal organization. 

GROWTH IN EDUCATION 

Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good 
government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means 
of education shall forever be encouraged. — Ordinance of 1787. 

672. Progress to 1880. Nothing seems to have been 
clearer to the founders of our repubhc than that free, 
general education was a matter of the greatest impor- 
tance. Thinking people understand that to keep up a 
democratic government the people must be able to form 
their own opinions. Hence public schools were founded 
and real progress was made. 

The Civil War interfered with this progress. In the 
South it destroyed so much property that it was hard 
to raise enough money to educate all the children. The 



GROWTH IN EDUCATION 415 

people of this region have been struggling with this 
problem ever since, but are now making progress. 

673. Growth since 1880. In kindergarten, grades, 
high school, and college there has been great growth in 
the last forty years. Many new kinds of educational 
work, barely thought of in 1880, have become common 
since that time. Among these are included night schools, 
vocational training, citizenship classes, community cen- 
ters and extension work, medical inspection, compulsory 
attendance, and vacation schools. 

674. The kindergarten. The kindergarten is a school 
for children too young to go to the regular school. The 
first school of this kind in the United States was founded 
in 1855. By 1880 the movement was well started. Now 
there are kindergartens connected with the pubHc schools 
all over the country. ^^i 

675. The grades. The elementary school means much 
to the country because it is the place where young 
America, for the most part, gets its training. Out of 
one hundred children starting school in the first grade, 
on an average, fifty have dropped out at the end of 
the sixth grade, and sixteen more drop out during the 
seventh and eighth grades. This means that about two- 
thirds of the children who start in school never attend 
the high school. 

In 1880 there were 9,500,000 children in the elementary 
schools; by 1916 this number had risen to 20,500,000. 
It costs about $42 a year per pupil to run the schools. 
In the schools of earlier days Httle was taught except 
reading, writing, spelHng, arithmetic, grammar, geog- 
raphy, and United States history (§375). Now there are 
added nature study, drawing, music, cooking, sewing, 
physical training, and manual training. 



41 6 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

676. The high school. In 1880 there were about 2,500 
free public high schools in the country; in 191 5 the 
number had increased to 12,000. This great develop- 




NICHOLAS SENN HIGH SCHOOL 



ment has taken place in all parts of the country, especially 
in the South and West. Years ago some people objected 
to paying taxes to keep up the high school, but there is 
much less objection now. 

Most people used to think the high schools existed 
mainly to get boys and girls ready for college. Now 
high schools have come to be the "people's college." 
Many of the great city high schools now have better 
buildings, better equipment, and better teachers than 
the old-time colleges had.-'^^ 

677. Changes. There have been two great changes in 
high schools since 1880. Country children once had no 
chance for high-school training unless they went to the 
city. Now in many states they are coming to have right 
at home as good a chance as the city child has. In a 
growing number of states there are fine township or 
community high schools. Children whose homes are not 
in walking distance are taken to and from school in 
wagons or cars. Some of these consolidated schools also 
care for the children in the grades. The old one-room 



GROWTH IN EDUCATION 



417 




country school is disappearing and its place is being taken 
by the modern, well-equipped consolidated school. The 
second change is 



that in the cities 
different kinds of 
high schools are 
appearing. The 
old-time high 
school offered two 
or three courses , 
now there are gen- 
eral culture high 
schools, manual 
training high 
schools, commer- 
cial high schools, a rural school 

and agricultural and industrial high schools. ^^^ 

678. Normal schools and agricultural colleges. Long 

ago it was thought that anyone who had completed the 
work of the eight grades knew enough to teach school. 
Gradually, people got the idea that a good teacher must 
at least be a graduate of a high school and should have 
some special training for teaching. Thus arose the nor- 
mal school for the special preparation of teachers. These 
schools have increased rapidly in number. In 1916 there 
were 278 of them with about 173,000 students. ^^^ 

The Morrill Act of 1862 granted 30,000 acres of the 
public land to each state for each senator and represent- 
ative it had in Congress. The proceeds of the sale of 
these lands were to be used to support "agricultural and 
mechanical" colleges. Every state in the Union now has 
a state university or college of agriculture resting upon this 
grant. They give courses in agriculture, engineering, law, 
15 



4i8 



GROWTH OF THE NATION 



teaching, business, and other subjects. Any young person 
in the country can find in his own state one of these 
institutions eager to help him in getting a higher edu- 
cation.235 

Besides the state universities there are many colleges 
and universities founded by churches and private citi- 
zens (§379). All of them have done a great work in 
bringing to the boys and girls of America the chance for 
college training-^^** 

679. Vocational training. People used to think there 
was time enough to settle the question of a boy's occu- 
pation after he completed the high-school course. The 
result was that the high-school course of study did 
nothing to train him for any certain line of work.^" 
About 1880 people began to change their minds about 







•^ 



Svo! ma'-«is^A^37-l 



LABORATOR-i IN A TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL 

this question. They had discovered that only about 
twelve out of every hundred children that entered the 



GROWTH IN EDUCATION 419 

first grade ever finished high school. The others stopped 
in order to go to work. They thought young people 
should be fitted in the schools to earn a living whether 
they go on through high school or not. In this way 
"practical" or "vocational" studies came into the 
schools. 

First came the founding of agricultural high schools by 
several states. In these schools stock judging, farm 
accounts, seed testing, soils, marketing, and similar sub- 
jects were taught. Then the cities began to found trade 
schools where the boys were taught such kinds of work 
as printing, electrical work, drafting, and plumbing. In 
a Httle while, too, there were schools in which the girls 
could learn millinery, dressmaking, cooking, and sales- 
manship. This is a great change from the old type of 
education, but it keeps many boys and girls in school. 
It will also help them to earn a good living. 

Congress showed its interest in this kind of work by 
passing the Smith-Hughes Bill in 191 7. By this act the 
Federal government agrees to pay several million dollars 
a year to help the states carry on schools in agriculture, 
home economics, and in the trades. Over 2,000 schools 
received this help in 19 19. 

680. Compulsory school attendance. In 1852 Massa- 
chusetts passed the first law compelling parents to send 
their children to school. Since that time all of the states 
with the exception of Mississippi have passed such laws. 
In most of the states the children must be in school a 
part, or all, of the school year until they are fourteen 
years old; in other states the age limit for school attend- 
ance is sixteen years. 

681. Schools for adults. One-fourth of the people in 
Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh cannot speak 



420 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

the English language. They cannot read the newspapers, 
and it is hard for them to gather true information about 
American life and purposes. They will become good 
Americans if they are given a chance to learn the lan- 
guage of the country. Thoughtful Americans understand 
this need, and now in all the large cities there are night 
schools where the immigrant is taught to use the English 
language. He is taught also the history of the United 
States, what it means to vote, and what the duties and 
privileges of citizenship are. This is practical Ameri- 
canization. 

682. The school a community center. The school is 
the natural center for all community interests. All our 
citizens, of every race, color, condition, and creed, have 
a like interest in the school. In the public schools all 
children have the same opportunity. 

The rural schools were closed about half of the year. 
About the year 1900 people began to use the school 
buildings for community meetings. One of our troubles 
in the past was that we did not get together enough and 
talk things over. Now people of a neighborhood gather 
in the schoolhouse and have lectures, debates, parties, 
banquets, and meetings to discuss public questions. 
Many a rural school has a good library and pleasant read- 
ing room open to the public. To the school the farmers 
come to hold their seed-testing and stock- judging con- 
tests. This does much to take away the loneliness of the 
farmer's life. It also shows the country boys and girls 
that people can have good times in the country as well as 
in the city. City people, too, are taking hold of the 
community center movement. In 191 6 there were com- 
munity centers in 518 cities, and the movement is spread- 
ing rapidly. 



GROWTH OF EDUCATION 421 

683. Medical inspection. Many a boy who does poor 
work in school is thought by the teacher to be lazy or 
stupid. But often when the boy is examined, some 
physical defect of eye, ear, nose, throat, or teeth has been 
found. If he has the attention of a physician, the boy 
will become as alert and bright as any of his schoolmates. 
Should he not get this help, he will probably drop out of 
school and will be held back all his life. Medical inspec- 
tion of school children, begun in Europe years ago, was 




K,m 






slow getting started in the United States. In 1906 
Massachusetts passed the first act requiring such inspec- 
tion. By 191 1 twenty states had followed her example. 
Splendid results have been secured. 

684. Woman and higher education. One of the great 
educational movements of the last fifty years is the admis- 
sion of women to colleges and universities. Before that 
time the ' ' female seminaries ' ' were thought good enough 
for women. Now, practically all higher institutions of 
learning admit them. In addition there are many colleges 
of high standing for women. Many medical colleges and 
law schools have opened their doors to women. 



422 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

GROWTH OF READING 

685. Literature. Literature has had a great develop- 
ment since the Civil War. Samuel L. Clemens, "Mark 
Twain," first of a group of western writers, gave the world 
two of the greatest boys' books ever written. Huckleberry 
Finn and Tom SawycrP^ He also established a reputa- 
tion as a humorist in his Innocents Abroad. 

Bret Harte was another western writer, and Joaquin 
Miller, also of the West, gave America a splendid vision 
of herself in his poem "Columbus." The South, too, 
made fine contributions to our literature. George W. 
Cable wrote stories like The Grandissimes and Bona- 
venture about Louisiana people, while Charles Egbert 
Craddock pictured the life of the southern mountaineers. 
Thomas Nelson Page with . Red Rock belongs to this 
group. Three great southern poets were Sidney Lanier, 
Paul Hamilton Hayne, and Irwin Russell. 

The Middle West found a voice in the poems of James 
Whitcomb Riley and Eugene Field. Riley, known as the 
"Hoosier poet," wrote many poems in "Hoosier dialect," 
but also many beautiful compositions in pure English.^^^ 
His poems picture scenes of simple life with humor. 
His best loved poems are found in the volumes entitled 
Rhymes of Childhood, Out to Old Aunt Mary's, The Rag- 
gedy Man, and The Little Orphant Annie Book. Field 
also was a poet of childhood and a humorist. Among 
his best known works are A Little Book of Western Verse, 
With Trumpet and Drum, and Poems of Childhood. 

Edward Eggleston wrote three famous stories of early 
days in the Middle West: The Hoosier School Boy, 
The Hoosier School Master, and The Circuit Rider.'^*'^ 

The New England life of this period is pictured in the 
works of Sarah Orne Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, 
and Alice Brown. 



GROWTH OF READING 



423 




MODERN PRINTING PRESS 



But there were some writers whose work cannot be 
thought of as belonging to any special part of the country. 
They wrote for all 
America. Among 
them was the poet 
Walt Whitman, 
and the short 
story-writers 
Hamlin Gar- 
land,24i Frank R. 
Stockton, Richard Harding Davis,^^^ ^nd O. Henry.^^s 
Some novelists of this group were Henry James, William 
Dean Howells, Owen Wister, Meredith Nicholson, Gene 
Stratton Porter, Jack London, and Winston Churchill. 

686. Newspapers and periodicals. Since 1880 there 
has been a great increase in the reading habit on the 
part of the general public. This increase has expressed 
itself in a demand for more magazines and newspapers, 
as well as for more books. Outside of the schools, the 
newspapers and magazines are, without doubt, the greatest 
educational force in America. The number of news- 
papers and periodicals in 1918 was two and one-half times 
what it was in 1880. Some of the great newspapers print 
over 200,000 copies a day, while one popular magazine 
prints over 2,000,000 copies a week. 

687. Books and libraries. The great ironmaster, 
Andrew Carnegie, 2** believed that every city and town 
should have its free public library. He gave almost 
$45,000,000 for this purpose. He did not give all the 
money needed for the buildings, ^^^ but required the city 
where a library was to be built to pay part of the cost. 
As a result Mr. Carnegie is responsible for 1,539 free 
libraries for the use of the general public. In addition 



424 GROWTH OF THE NATION 

to this Mr. Carnegie gave over $18,000,000 to colleges 
for their libraries. This was a princely gift to the 
American people. 

Magazines that give a review of current events with an 
intelligent discussion of them are important. In many 
schools it is the custom to use these magazines for class 
work. Prominent among them are the Literary Digest, 
the Review of Reviews, the World's Work, the Outlook, 
and Current Events. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Pattee, History of American Literature 
sitice 1870; Bassett, Short History, 711, 712; Eastman, The Indian of 
Today; Cubberley, Public Education in the United States; Hart, Con- 
temporaries, IV, Nos. 204, 205; Schafer, History of the Pacific North- 
west; Paxson, The Last American Frontier; Sparks, National Develop- 
ment; Sweet, History of Latin America. 

References for pupils: Paine, The Boy's Life of Mark Twain; 
Sabin, Building the Pacific Railway; Dellenbaugh, Breaking the Wilder- 
ness; Muir, Our National Parks; Hough,. The Story of the Cowboy; 
Garland, Boy Life on the Prairie; Hart, Source Book, No. 138; Parrish, 
The Great Plains. 

Fiction: Eaton, Boy Scouts in Glacier Park; Tomlinson, Scouting 
with Kit Carson; Schulz, With the Indians in the Rockies; Grinnell, 
Blackfcet Indian Stories; Allen, The Mettle of the Pasture; Fox, 'Christ- 
mas Eve on Lonesome; London, The House of Pride; Harris, On the 
Plantation. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Imagine you have been visiting friends in the Red River Valley 
in North Dakota. Write an account of the big wheat farms to your 
friends at home. 2. Topic, "Salmon fishing on the Columbia." 

3. Imagine yourself an old Indian telling your grandchildren the story 
of the struggle between the white man and the Indian for the land. 

4. Topic, "Why I like my school." 5. Make out programs for three 
community meetings at your school this winter. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 

688. Foreign trade. Many products of our farms and 
factories go to other countries to help feed and clothe 
their people. This volume of outflowing goods is our 
exports, but we bring into this country great quantities 
of rubber, coifee, wool, sugar, pulp wood, and other 
products. These are our imports. 

Imports and exports together make up our foreign 
trade. World trade rests upon the fact that the United 
States can produce some kinds of goods more cheaply 
than other countries can and that in producing some 
goods other countries have the advantage over us. So 
each country, after using what it wants of its products, 
trades the rest to other countries. 

689. Agricultural exports. The United States has 
always had a big advantage in farm products. This is 
due to our rich soil, our favorable climate, and our wide 
use of farm machinery. We have been exporting farm 
products ever since the founding of our country. In 
19 1 8 we sent out of the country two and one-half times 
as much as in 1880. Cotton, meat, wheat, and flour 
were valued in the order named. ^^^ The people of 
Europe are not accustomed to using corn meal, so we 
feed the corn to our cattle and hogs and export it in the 
form of meat. 

690. Export of manufactures. While our exports of 
farm products have greatly increased since 1880, manu- 

425 



426 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



factures have left them far behind. The export of manu- 
factured goods has increased more than twenty-seven 
times the amount in 1880 and is now ten times greater 
than our agricultural products exported. ^^'^ 

In far-away Siberia locomotives made in Philadelphia 
are drawing trains of American made-cars over steel rails 
made in Pittsburgh. Chinese shopkeepers light their 




FREIGHT AT THE DOCKS READ\ FOR SHIPMENT TO EUROPE 

stores with the product of the Standard Oil Company, 
and Australian sheep raisers use American barbed wire 
fences between their pastures. Self-binders from Chicago 
gather the wheat crop in Hungary, and American-made 
talking-machines and moving pictures entertain the boys 
and girls of Siam. The Brazilian lights his streets with 
electric current made by machinery from Schenectady, 
and a bridge made in Chicago and shipped in parts spans 
the straits between India and Ceylon. American boots 
and shoes, rubber tires, and automobiles are found in 



GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 427 

every land. The American manufacturer uses the whole 
world for his market. 

691. Our customers. Europe has always been our 
best customer. This is natural because highly developed 
countries having industries of their own are able to call 
for the products of all the world and get them. They have 
something to give in exchange. England is our largest 
buyer, with Canada next. Then in order come Germany, 
France, Netherlands, Italy, and Belgium (19 13). 

692. Imports. No nation can export goods to any great 
extent unless it also imports goods. This is because the 
nations receiving goods cannot pay for them in money 
alone. That would soon strip them of gold. They pay 
for goods with other goods of their own production. 

In 1 918 the imports of the United States were four 
times greater than in 1880. The principal articles 
brought in are sugar, chemicals, rubber, coffee, silk, flax, 
hemp, and jute. These goods come from the countries 
to which we export largely. It is important to know that 
they appear in the same order — England, Canada, Ger- 
many, France, Netherlands, Italy, and Belgium. 

693. Balance of trade. Since 1880, the value of 
United States exports has always been greater than the 
worth of its imports. When we are selling more than we 
are buying we are said to have a ' ' favorable balance ' ' of 
trade. 

694. Trade with South America. With its large popu- 
lation and big cities. South America is a great market for 
all kinds of manufactured goods. But until recently the 
United States has had only a small part of this trade. 
England and Germany years ago got into this market and 
taught the people to use their goods.^*^ The United 
States, on the other hand, never made any special effort 



428 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

to get into the South American market. There were no 
branches of American banks there, and American business 
firms had few men there who spoke Spanish. 

695. Reciprocity. About 1880 America began to show 
more interest in South America. We have seen how 
Secretary Blaine brought about a meeting of Pan-Ameri- 
can delegates in Washington in 1 889. They recommended 
reciprocity treaties between the different countries (§598). 
As a result reciprocity was put in the McKinley Tariff 
Law of 1890 (§534). The substance of it was that the 
United States would admit free of duty, sugar, molasses, 
coffee, and hides if the South American states would 
receive our farm machinery, engines, shoes, and other 
goods on favorable terms. This was the real basis of the 
trade that has developed since that time. 

696. Panama Canal. Among other things the building 
of the Panama Canal was intended to help trade between 
the United States and South America. One can see what 
a big change it makes when he looks at the map (p. 365). 

697. The new attitude. Our business men are awake 
to the fact that there is a big market for their goods in 
South America and are training young men to go there 
as their agents. The bankers are opening branch banks 
in all the large cities, and the South Americans are being 
taught to use our products. Many meetings have been 
held to develop friendly feeHngs, and groups of business 
men have visited back and forth. 

The results are very encouraging. Our exports to 
South America have grown to fourteen times what they 
were in 1880. This is a fine gain. Our exports to Europe 
are five times what they were in 1880. 

In imports, too, we have done well. They are now 
seven times as great as they were at the beginning of this 



GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 429 

period. The five countries leading in business with the 
United States are in order Argentine, Brazil, Chile, Peru, 
and Uruguay. It is clear that the South American trade 
will be an increasing factor in our industrial life. 

698. Merchant marine. Most of the commerce of the 
country was carried in American vessels until the Civil 
War. After that war our merchant marine went down 
rapidly and other nations got our sea trade. 2"*^ Americans 
could make more by putting their mon§y in railroads, 
farms, and factories. So our merchant ships almost dis- 
appeared from the sea, and Holland, England, Norway, 
and Germany carried our products and collected big 
freight bills. By 1907 only seven ships out of one hun- 
dred carrying our exports sailed under the American flag. 
Men who wanted to start steamship lines asked for a 
subsidy; that is, they asked Congress to help them with 
money just as it had helped the western railroads with 
gifts of land (§524). Others thought it best to let for- 
eigners carry our freight if they could do it cheaper than 
we ourselves could. 

The World War made a big difference in shipping. '-"^^ 
The ships of other nations were largely driven from the 




THE AMERICAN OCEAN LINER "NEW YORK," WHICH CROSSES THE OCEAN IN FIVE 
AND ONE-HALF DAYS 

seas, and we began to buy and build ships as fast as we 
could. In 1 9 18 our tonnage was forty times as big as it 
was in 1912. 



430 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 

699. Our national wealth. With about 6 per cent of 
the land surface of the globe and about 6 per cent of its 
population, the United States each year produces one- 
third of all the world's wealth. We have enough national 
wealth to give every man, woman, and child over $2,000, 
if it were evenly divided. In 1880 our national wealth 
was hardly one-fifth of what it is now. Its growth has 
been astonishing. It has grown even faster than the 
population. How has this growth been brought about? 

AGRICULTURE 

700. Reasons for growth. There are several reasons 
for the great growth in farming during the last forty 
years. Some of them are: the increase in the area of 
farm land and the number of farms; the development 
and the greater use of farm machinery and of scientific 
methods of farming; the development of hard roads and 
railroads ; the higher standard of living and of intelligence 
among farmers. 

701. Increase in farm land. The United States census 
tells us there were 4,000,000 farms in the United States 

- - - -o-:>, in 1880. In 1918 

the number had in- 
creased to about 
6,700,000. We have 
seen how the Home- 
stead Act opened 
the West to settle- 
ment, how the build- 
ing of the railroads 
brought settlers into 

that region (§§656-664) and how irrigation added to the 

farm lands (§560). 




THE STEAM PLOW Al WORK ON 



PRAIRIE FARM 



AGRICULTURE 431 

702. Science and farming. In the great state uni- 
versities and agricultural colleges the laboratories are filled 
with scientists who are studying questions of farm work. 
Some of them are studying diseases of plants and how to 
get rid of them. It was in 1885 that a scientist gave the 
Bordeaux mixture to the world. By this mixture many 
bad diseases of plants may be kept down. In the labora- 
tory other scientists are studying diseases of animals and 
their prevention. Many of these diseases are due to 
germs. ^'^^ The scientists find and study the germ, and 
then show the farmer how to fight it and thus keep his 
cattle, hogs, and sheep in good health. 

In other laboratories scientists study soils. They learn 
what kind of fertilizers the soil needs to make it produce 
more. They tell the farmer how to use these fertiHzers. 
They tell him also how to make worn-out soil productive 
again. Other scientists study insect pests and how to 
deal with them. They have told the farmer how to fight 
the potato bug and the codling moth that ruins so many 
apples. They have studied the Hessian fly that killed 
half the wheat crop, and have found out that if the 
farmer delays planting until the flies that lay the eggs 
are gone, he will have no trouble. The cotton boll 
weevil that threatened the entire cotton crop a few years 
ago has had to surrender to the scientist. The grain farmer, 
the cattle and hog ^^ r^.^^_.^«,..=.^^^ J^^^ri'^r|^. 
raiser, the fruit " 1. J-."^ V.^SSfe [ i*^!^ 

grower, the cotton C^'^'>^*^^^ ""Jn^S^^ 

market gardener ^^^^^^-^'^'"-^-^^^^ 
are all dependent ^ ki RosENt^MoioR ^ttachld to mowing machines 
upon the work of the scientist. Our food supply could 
hardly be kept up without his help. 



432 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



703. Farm machinery. Farm machinery saves human 
labor. A modern farm has about twice as much machin- 
ery on it as it had in 1880. With its gang plows, its 
gasoline tractors, its corn planters, and its riding culti- 
vators, its harvesters and motor trucks, it is a good deal 
like a factory. The farmer of today must know as much 
about machines as he does about plants and animals. 




STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER 



These machines lessen the cost of producing crops, and 
greatly increase the quantity raised. ^^i 

704. Transportation. The farmer raises products to 
sell in the markets of the world, but if he has no means 
of carrying them to market he might as well go out of 
business. Modern farming and means of transporta- 
tion go together. Improvement of country roads and 
extension of railroad lines have been the two main ways 
of meeting the transportation problem. In 1880 there 
were 93,000 miles of railroad in the country. In 191 6 
there were over 254,000 miles. There has been a wonder- 
ful improvement in country roads in the last few years. 
It now costs on the average a bit over 14 cents per bushel 
for the western farmer to get his wheat to the primary 
markets — Chicago, Minneapolis, Kansas City. If his 
wheat is going abroad, it will cost about 30 cents 



AGRICULTURE 



433 




iN OLD-TIME MUD RO^D IN EARLY SPRING 



per bushel to 

send it to 

Liverpool. By 

the extension 

of railroads 

and the cheap- 
ening of ocean 

freight the 

whole world 

has now be- 

c o m e the 

American 

farmer's market. 

The extension of railroads improves the city milk 

supply. Farmers living 300 miles from cities like New 

York now ship milk daily by special train to the city. 

In 1880 it was a rare thing for milk to be sent even 

100 miles. Thus city dwellers get good fresh milk every 

day, and farmers who live hundreds of miles from the 

city can have successful dairy farms. 

One of the latest developments is the rural truck line. 

In many parts of the country gasoline trucks stop at the 

farmer's gate 
daily, and 
take on loads 
of butter, 
eggs, fruit, 
and p'oultry 
for the city. 
This is a great 
convenience 
to the farmer 
and relieves 




5'y#' 



THE SVML RO\D IMPROVED 



434 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



the railroads of part of their work. Good railroad and 
good truck service raises the value of farm lands. 

705. Storage. In some states the wheat crop is so big 
that the roads cannot carry it all to market at once. 
Hence it must be stored. The farmer cannot do this, 
so he hauls the wheat to the nearest town and' sells it to 
the people who run the storage elevators. ^^^ In many 




O^^ 



A MODERN ELEVATOR 



instances the farmer feels that he does not get enough 
money for his crop, but he must sell it at the elevator 
price or lose it. In some places the farmers have com- 
bined and built elevators of their own. In this way 
they can hold their wheat until they are ready to sell it. 
North Dakota has gone into the business of running 
storage elevators. 

706. Cold storage. Eggs, meat, poultry, butter, and 
fruit can be kept for some months in cold storage. Many 
companies are buying these articles fresh from the farm 
and then keeping them in cold-storage houses until they 
can get a high price for them. In this way much of the 
mutton, butter, poultry, and eggs stay in these plants 
six months or more. In September, 191 9, there were 



AGRICULTURE 43 5 

12,000,000 cases of eggs in cold storage in New York 
City. A case contains thirty dozen eggs. 

707. Higher standards. The farmer's Hfe is not what 
it used to be. In addition to being a farmer, he is now a 
business man. He sells his goods in the markets of the 
world. He thus meets competition. He must have his 
daily newspaper and telephone so he can keep track of 
prices and do business quickly. He must know about 
animal and plant diseases and about soils. He must 
understand machinery. It is to his interest to keep him- 
self informed on public questions such as the tariff and 
trusts. He must be on good terms with the banker so 
he can borrow money when he wants it. He sees the 
relation between good schools and good farming and for 
this reason he wants good schools for his children. All 
this means that he is much more intelHgent and alert 
than was the farmer of 1880. The agricultural colleges, 
sending the results of their work to the farmer through 
the public schools, the farmers' institutes, and the demon- 
stration trains, have been very helpful in aiding him 
to meet the demands of a new time. 

The farmer has learned to live much more comfortably 
than he did in 1880. He eats better food, lives in a better 
house, rides in an automobile, and has his farm work done 
largely by machinery. He will work and plan harder than 
ever, use more machinery, and make more use of science 
in the future so that he can increase production and thus 
add to his income. In this way the rising standard of 
living constantly leads to better farming. 

708. Farm renters. The picture of farming in the 
United States from 1880 to the present time is very 
encouraging, but there is another side that is not so 
pleasant. It has to do with farm renting. 



436 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

In 1880 one-fourth of the farms were occupied by farm 
tenants or renters. By 19 10 the number had risen to 
almost two-fifths, and it has greatly increased since then. 
There are several reasons for this. It takes more money 
now than formerly to own and run a farm. In the North 
Central states it is not uncommon for farm lands to cost 
as much as $300 an acre. This means that an ordinary 
farm of 120 acres is worth about $36,000, a sum so large 
that only well-to-do people can buy land and become 
farmers. 

The farmer, too, must be able to put a good deal of 
money into machinery and labor. Many successful 
farmers place tenants on their farms, move to the cities, 
and live on their incomes. Big companies are formed to 
buy up farms in the same neighborhood and throw them 
together. They farm on a "big business" scale, hiring 
tenants to do the work.^^^ 

Many students of the subject think this habit of rent- 
ing farms is bad for the country. They say that the 
renter does not keep as much live stock as the farmer- 
owner and lets the soil run down. Expecting to move to 
some other farm after while, the renter fails to keep up 
the improvements. In this way some of the best farms 
in the country are losing their fertility, and a permanent 
tenant class is appearing. 

The highest percentage of farm lands held by tenants 
is in the North Central states — Indiana, Illinois, and 
Iowa. 

709. Land banks. Farmers have long complained of 
the high rates of interest they have been compelled to 
pay when they borrowed money at the banks. They 
also said they needed money for longer periods than the 
banks were willing to grant. This led to an agitation for 



MANUFACTURING 437 

the founding of some special kind of bank to meet the 
needs of the farmer. In 191 6 Congress met this demand 
by estabHshing Federal Farm Loan banks. There are 
twelve of them. When a farmer wants to borrow money, 
he forms an association of at least ten farmers who are 
willing to back one another. Through this association 
they are able to borrow money from the Land bank in 
their district. 

710. The Department of Agriculture. The Depart- 
ment of Agriculture at Washington supervises the farming 
industry of the country. It is organized in thirteen main 
divisions. The divisions that look after forests, public 
roads, markets, and animal industries are the most impor- 
tant. The Department maintains laboratories for experi- 
mental purposes at the state agricultural colleges and 
universities. It pubHshes bulletins upon all subjects 
of interest to the farmer. About $28,000,000 per year 
is required to keep up the Department, but it is worth 
many times that sum to the country. ^S'* 

MANUFACTURING 

711. Manufacturing and agriculture. Agriculture was 
easily developed in the United States because soil, climate, 
and people were all favorable to it. It was naturally the 
first and main industry. Not until 1880 did manufac- 
turing pass agriculture in the value of its annual product. 
In spite of this gain the census tells us that more than 
one- third of our workers are engaged in agriculture while 
over one-fourth are engaged in manufacturing. From 
the standpoint, therefore, of the number of people 
engaged, agriculture is still our leading industry. 

712. Manufacturing. Many factors enter into manu- 
facturing: land, labor, capital, management, transporta- 



.438 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



tion, raw materials, and markets. We have become the 
greatest manufacturing nation in the world because we 
are specially favored in these respects: (i) We have a 
rich soil that yields great quantities of raw materials such 
as cotton, cereals, meat, and lumber. In another class 
of raw materials are ores, such as iron and copper, and 
petroleum. (2) The intelligence and industry as well as 
the ingenuity of our laboring people are largely respon- 
sible for our success in manufacturing. Our schools try 
to educate the child of the worker as well as of the rich 
man. There are no social distinctions. The better edu- 
cated a man is, the better worker he is. Our factories 
and mills have many thousands of superintendents and 
foremen who have risen from the ranks by hard work. 
(3) We have abundant capital. Our production of 
wealth is so great that a large surplus is left after we have 
used what we need. This surplus is used as capital in the 
production of more goods. It takes the form of machines, 









THE LARGEST LUMBER MILL IN THE WORLD 



tools, buildings, and railroads. Thus our industries 
grow. (4) The management of a great manufacturing 



MANUFACTURING 



439 



plant is a difficult task. Men should be trained for this 
work. Many universities have courses to train men 



>-^.1v 



•i:^^ 



:---lT 



..^*«r 



K^^^m^- -^^^i^ 



iw^^ 



ii ^ ^: - 



to become superintendents and managers. Some large 
estabHshments, such as the General Electric Company, 
maintain schools for training these young men to take 
places in their plants. (5) Our transportation system 
of railroads, country roads, and Great Lakes is the best in 
the world. We have about 40 per cent of all the railroad 
Hnes in the world, and thousands of miles of hard- 
surfaced road. (6) We have markets both at home and 
abroad. Our population has high standards of living and 
demands high-grade manufactured goods in hundreds 
of forms that the common people of Europe have never 
had. 

713. Science and manufacturing. We have seen how 
much modern science helps agriculture (§702). It is just 
as useful to manufacturing. Until 1880 manufacturers 
worked largely by "hit or miss" plans or by imitation. 



440 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

but that day is gone. Now the manufacturer uses the 
very best methods and the best machinery to be had. 
The universities and technical schools prepare young men 
to be managers and superintendents, but they do much 
more than this. All the colleges operating under the 
Morrill Act, and many others, have big laboratories and 
experimental stations as well as shops. Here young men 
study materials of which manufactures are made. They 
learn the nature of the materials and how they can best 
be used. 

Manufacturers have found that it pays to keep trained 
scientists at work in their factories. They are trying to 
improve the product as well as to make it cost less. For 
a long time Germany led the world in this use of scien- 
tists in industry and enjoyed a great advantage. But 
she no longer has this advantage, as the manufacturers 
of the United States have adopted a similar plan. 

714. Direct production. In the pioneer stage of our 
life there was very little exchange of goods between com- 
munities at a distance from one another. The people of 
every neighborhood grew their crops and raised cattle, 
sheep, hogs, and poultry. They sheared the sheep, spun 
the yarn, wove and dyed the cloth, and made the gar- 
ments. They butchered the cattle, tanned the hides, 
and made their own shoes and harness. They cut down 
trees and made their carts, plows, and buildings. They 
salted their meats and baked their bread. They dug the 
clay and made the bricks they used. About the only 
articles not produced in the immediate neighborhood of 
the early settlers were iron, salt, gunpowder, coffee, and 
spices. These articles they got from peddlers. Not 
much money was to be seen. 

Now what was the reason for this state of affairs? It 



MANUFACTURING 441 

was the lack of roads and means of transportation. Each 
group had to produce its own goods. There was no other 
way. To the people of today, living in comfort with the 
products of the whole world brought to their doors, the 
life of that time seems hard and poor. It was the time of 
direct production. 

715. Indirect production. Let us look at production 
as it is carried on today. In the old days, there were only 
a few distinct occupations, now there are thousands. 
The work is so divided up that each producer is expected 
to know only one trade and to work at that. The farmer 
raises crops and grows live stock; the carpenter builds 
houses; the printer sets type; the tailor makes clothes; 
the baker makes bread; the tanner prepares the hide. 
Each man follows his own trade, develops skill and speed, 
and exchanges his product for those of other producers. 
The result is that each one gets a larger quantity and a 
better quality of goods than he had when he tried to 
produce all these different articles for himself. The 
growth of this system of exchange depends upon two 
things: an increasing supply of money and growth of 
the means of transportation. 

When we compare the life of today with the life of the 
frontier in this matter of occupations, we see the enor- 
mous influence of good country roads, railroads, and 
waterways upon our industry. Today we live in an era 
of indirect production. Hardly anybody produces all he 
uses, but by producing for others he gets all the things 
he wants. 

716. Division of labor. Indirect production or division 
of labor is carried far in the modern factory. Each 
workman has just one thing to do. For instance, in a 
shoe factory there are men who do nothing but run 



442 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

stitching machines, but there are half a dozen kinds of 
stitching to be done, so there are half a dozen stitchers, 
each one running his own pecuHar kind of machine. 
Others run buttonhole machines, or punch holes for eye- 
lets, and still others run machines that put in the hooks. 
In all there are over one hundred different operations, each 
performed by a different worker. Another illustration is 
a butcher's gang in a meat-packing plant. It is estimated 
that thirty men are used in cutting up an animal, each 
man performing just one kind of work. 

717. Use of machines. Division of labor depends 
upon the use of machines. They have become the 
most important feature of modern industry. Indeed 
the present time is often called "the era of machine 
production." Machines are used because they save 
human labor; they give a bigger output at lower cost.^^^ 

Our leading position in manufacturing is due largely 
to the readiness of the manufacturers to use machines 
and division of labor in their factories. 

718. Geographical distribution. An industrial map of 
the United States shows that most of the factories are in 
the region east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio 
and Potomac. The first ten states rank as follows in 
their manufactures: New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, 
Massachusetts, Ohio, New Jersey, Michigan, Wisconsin, 
Indiana, and Missouri. Of these, each of the first six 
produces goods worth more than a billion dollars a year. 
New York's products run up to over three billion dollars 
a year. 

719. The Pacific coast. The Pacific coast is so far from 
the manufacturing centers of the East that the people 
on the coast have been compelled largely to develop 
their own factory system. They have made a good start, 



MANUFACTURING 



443 



California ranking eleventh and Washington twenty- 
first among the states. 

720. The South. The southern people, too, are begin- 
ning to build factories. Alabama has a large iron and 
steel business. It centers at Birmingham, where the 
essentials of iron manufacturing, coal, iron ore, and Hme- 
stone, are found near together.'"'^ North Carolina, South 




INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS IN THE SOUTH 



Carolina, and Georgia are now manufacturing a large 
part of their cotton product. They formerly sent it to 
New England to be turned into cloth. The value of 
cotton goods made in these states in 19 10 was more than 
four times as great as in 1880. 

721. Further localization. It is interesting to note 
that factories engaged in the same kind of industry try 
to collect around some one city. This is often due to 
the fact that the industry got started there in the first 
place and that new factories afterward located there to 
get the use of trained labor. Thus Chicago is the great 



444 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 

meat-packing center, New York City, the ready-made 
clothing center, Troy, New* York, makes most of our 
collars and cuffs, Philadelphia leads in carpet making. 
Detroit is widely known in connection with automobile 
manufacturing. 

722. How the cities rank. The census says that our 
big cities in the value of their manufactured goods rank 
as follows: New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, 
Cleveland, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Boston, Buffalo, and 
Milwaukee. This counts only the production inside the 
city Hmits. If the count were extended to the district 
around each city, the ranking would probably be different. 

723. By-products. In some industries there is natu- 
rally a good deal of waste. Until 1880 little effort was 
made to find uses for this waste. Manufacturers looked 
upon it as a nuisance and burned it or dumped it in a 
near-by river. Since that time a great change has come 



S^ii 







"'^^ '-'■ " ' about Scientists have 

(^ '^ „ ' shown the manufacturers 

") nf^ ^-^^Z^^^^^'t producing goods that the 



VN OIL FIELD IN PENNSYLVANIA 



world wants or needs. These 
wastes are now called "by- 
products." Big factories are much more able than small 
ones to take care of their by-products. 



MANUFACTURING 445 

A good illustration of the use of by-products is found 
in the cotton manufacturing industry. Formerly the 
seed, when it was separated from the fiber, was thrown 
away. Now the hull of the seed is used for ten different 
purposes, among which are stock feed, fertilizer, fuel, 
packing, and explosives. The meat of the seed, treated 
in various ways, yields no fewer than forty commercial 
products, among which are fertilizers, dyestuff, stock 
feed, cooking oil, and oils used in glycerin, candles, 
washing powder, soap, linoleum, and oilcloth. Another 
illustration of the use of by-products is in the refining 
of petroleum. That business was established to produce 
kerosene, but now some of the by-products are more 
important than the original main product. In this 
group are gasoline, benzine, naphtha, lubricating oils, 
paraffin, and asphalt. A few of the many other by- 
products of petroleum are coke, dye stuffs, tar, and 
vaseline. 

724. Slaughtering and meat packing. The slaughter- 
ing and meat packing industry centered at Cincinnati 
until about i860. In that year Chicago took first place, 
a position it still holds. Large plants are located at 
Kansas City, Omaha, and Oklahoma City. There is a 
minute division of labor in these plants, and by-products 
are carefully looked after. The refrigerator car is an 
important part of this business j^" by means of it fresh 
meats are sent all over the country. 

725. Iron and steel. It would be a hopeless task to 
try to count all the uses of iron and steel. When we think 
of railroads, locomotives, stoves, machines of numberless 
kinds, saws, tools, hardware, barbed wire, structural iron 
and steel, firearms and steamships, we see how true is 
the saying that this is the "iron age." This industry 



446 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



centered at Pittsburgh, Pehnsylvania, in the early days 
because the coal, iron ore, and limestone were found 
there. The Pittsburgh district has always retained first 
place. Other manufacturing districts that have been 
developed are the Birmingham, Alabama, district; the 
Ohio district, around Cleveland and Youngstown; and 
the Chicago district, including South Chicago and Joliet, 
Illinois, and Gary, Indiana. A wonderful system of 
water and rail transportation brings the ore from the 
Lake Superior region to these manufacturing plants. ^^^ 
Scientists have studied the nature of this metal until 
they have invented processes of producing different 
kinds of steel goods for different purposes. Between 




1899 and 1 9 14 the value of the product in this industry 
almost trebled, the number of workers employed rising 
from 745,000 to 1,061,000. 



THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 447 

726. Cotton goods. New England was the early home 
of cotton manufactures (§278). It still leads all other 
sections. This is largely because of the labor situation. 
New England has a "dependable labor supply, while the 
South is hampered in this respect. The negro does not 
make a good machine tender, and the supply of white 
labor in the South is limited. In spite of this handicap, 
the South has recently made good progress in establishing 
cotton mills (§720). The states rank as follows in cotton 
manufacture: Massachusetts, North Carolina, South 
Carolina, Georgia, and Rhode Island. 

THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 

727. The inventor. The inventor, knowing of some 
need of society, tries to create a machine or device that 
will satisfy that need. Thomas Edison saw the need of 
a small electric light for use in offices and homes. He 
made hundreds of experiments and at last found th^t a 
little strip of bamboo was what he wanted. He turned 
this into charcoal, put it in a glass bulb from which the 
air was exhausted, and connected it with an electric 
battery. He had invented the incandescent lamp. 

Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio, knew that 
the world needed flying machines. For years they worked 
patiently, solving one problem after another, until they 
realized that all they needed was a high-speed gasoline 
engine. They built such an engine, and on December 17, 
1903, made a successful flight. The problem of flying 
had been solved. 

After the original invention is made, inventors use it 
as a starting point for many improvements. Thus 
Edison's lamp has been developed into the hydrogen- 
tungsten lamp, and the Wright brothers' crude machine 



GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 



has grown into the fast scouting 
machine that darts across the sky 
at the rate of 120 miles an hour. 
Some inventions are accidental 
discoveries, but most of them are 
the result of long, patient study. -^^ 

728. Patents. Our government 
has always felt the importance 
of encouraging inventors. In 1790 
our first patent law was passed. 
It was largely the work of Thomas 
Jefferson. He is called "the 
father of the patent system." 
By the patent law the govern- 
ment gives an inventor for seven- 
teen years the sole right to manu- 
facture and sell his invention. 
Of course he can sell this right 
if he wishes to. 

Americans lead all the rest of 
the world in invention. The year 
1918 saw almost 40,000 patents 
issued, while since 1790 they num- 
ber over a million and a quarter. 

729. Inventions since the Civil 
War. It would be useless to try 
to mention even the most impor- 
tant inventions of the last fifty 
years, but we may name a few of 
them. In the field of electricity 
there is the telephone, the electric 
light, the electric street car and 
interurban, the wireless telephone 




THE PROGRESS OF ILLUMINATION 

FROM CANDLE TO LAMP, TO 

GAS, TO ELECTRICITY 



THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 449 

and telegraph and the X-ray. Electric power made at 
central stations is sent out over wires to factories to run 
machines, and electric locomotives pull long freight trains 
across the Rockies. Then we have the moving-picture 
machine, the fountain pen, the phonograph, the air- 
brake for railroad cars, the typewriter, the automobile, 
and the many wonderful machines now used on farm and 
in factory. Any student can think of many others. 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 478, 479, 665, 679, 
680, 685-689, 690, 748, 818-821; Bishop and Keller, Industry and 
Trade; Bogart, Economic History, chaps, xxviii, xxxii; Galpin, Rural 
Life; Day, A History of Commerce. 

References for pupils: Wheeler, Thomas Edison; Rocheleau, 
Geography of Commerce and Industry; Sanford, The Story of Agriculture 
in the United States; Weed, Farm Friends and Farm Foes; Gibson, The 
Romance of Modern Manufacturing; Hodge, Nature Study and Life; 
Darrow, The Boy^s Own Book of Great Inventions; James, Readings in 
American History, No. 103. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Topic, "How we can build up trade with South America." 
2. Write an argument in favor of a ship subsidy. 3. Imagine yourself 
an apple grower in Kansas. Tell of your fight with the enemies of 
your apple trees. 4. Do you think a state should go into the elevator 
business? Topic, "State-owned elevators in North Dakota." 
5. Compare the conveniences of the farmer's life today with what it 
was fifty years ago. 6. Topic, "What would the world be without 
steel?" 



16 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE WORLD WAR 

AMERICA FINDS IT HARD TO BE NEUTRAL 

730. The explosion. The great majority of our people 
were looking forward to a long time of peace when the 
year 1914 came in. Suddenly in the summer the greatest 
war in history broke out. The war was the greatest if we 
think of the number of nations fighting, the number of 
men killed, the amount of property destroyed, and the 
difficulty of settling its problems. 

731. The immediate causes. In June Archduke Ferdi- 
nand, heir to the throne of Austria, was killed by a bomb. 
This was the spark that set the world on fire. Austria 
held Serbia responsible and immediately made demands 
on her to which no nation could submit. Germany, with 
the largest and best trained army in the world, backed 
up Austria. Russia stood behind Serbia; and France was 
ready to support Russia; Turkey and Bulgaria came 
into the war on the side of Germany. 

Just before the crisis came, England appealed to Ger- 
many to stop war preparations, but she refused. In a few 
days vast crowds of German soldiers were sweeping into 
Belgium, aiming at the heart of France — Paris. 

732. The effects of Germany's violation of Belgian 
neutraUty. Belgium is a small state, and the great nations 
of Europe had taken a solemn pledge never to attack 
her. When Germany broke that pledge, Great Britain 
jumped to Belgium's defense, and to her own, too, 
for everybody saw that England would be the next victim 
if France were crushed. 

450 



AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 45 1 

The British army, not large, joined the French, and 
they drove the Germans back in the first Battle of the 
Marne. The British navy, the largest in the world, 
swept German commerce from the seas and blocked up 
the German navy in German waters. Only the Ger- 
man submarines could slip out from their hiding places 
in the North Sea and menace the British and French 
fleets. 

In Eastern waters Japan joined the cause of the Allies, 
and a bit later Italy threw herself into the war against 
the Germans and Austrians. 

733. America declares herself neutral. The people of 
the United States were in a hard place. They had come 
from the very nations now fighting. How could they be 
neutral although President Wilson sent out his appeal to 
them to treat the warring countries in a friendly manner ? 
How could they when they saw fathers, brothers, or hus- 
bands falling in battle? The American government 
might be neutral, but the American people were not 
neutral in their feelings. 

734. Why America found it difficult to be neutral. 
The nations at war influenced their friends in America 
to make sentiment for them. 

Just as in the time of the Napoleonic Wars (§289), the 
trade of the world fell to America. American merchants 
seized the opportunity. They not only carried vast 
quantities of food and clothing to England and France, 
but turned their shops and foundries to making shot, 
shells, guns, cannon, airplanes, and other things used in 
war. None of these went to Germany because the Brit- 
ish fleet controlled the sea. 

Friends of Germany objected to our helping her ene- 
mies. But America had a right to trade with the nations 



452 THE WORLD WAR 

at war and could hardly give up this trade to please 
Germany. In fact, in a way, it would have been a blow 
at the Allies to have done so. America was ready at any 
time to trade with Germany. She did trade with the 
"Deutschland," a German submarine, which came to 
America. 

735. America protests to England and to Germany. 
In spite of the fact that we were sending millions of trade 
to England' she searched our ships for letters, papers, and 
other things intended for Germany. The United States 
protested against England's acts. 

But the acts of Germany were worse than England's. 
Her submarines sank passenger ships without attempting 
to save the passengers. On May 7, 191 5, a German 
submarine shocked the world by sinking the "Lusitania," 
a giant English passenger .ship, with many on board.^^" 
Over one hundred of the victims were American citizens. 
Within a short time a number of ships were sent to the 
bottom of the sea, some of them belonging to America. 

President Wilson warned Germany and demanded that 
she settle for the damage done. Germany simply ex- 
pressed her "regret" that American lives had been lost. 
Another protest was immediately sent, declaring that the 
United States would be compelled to cease friendly rela- 
tions if the sinking of merchant ships was not stopped. 
Germany then promised to save the lives of American citi- 
zens in case she needed to sink passenger ships. 

736. Rise of a war sentiment in America. A year had 
passed since the sinking of the "Lusitania." A powerful 
sentiment in favor of war was growing up in America. 
The demand arose that the United States should increase 
its army and navy. But the government at Washington 
gave little heed to this cry for preparation for war."'"' 



AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 453 

737. Presidential campaign of 191 6. When the Demo- 
crats of 1 91 6 faced their declaration for one term made in 
191 2, they were silent. They nominated Wilson for a 
second term. The Republican and Progressive parties 
met in Chicago at the same time. Roosevelt was nomi- 
nated by the Progressives, and Hughes by the Republicans. 
Roosevelt withdrew in favor of Hughes, a former governor 
of New York, where he had fought the bosses as Roosevelt 
had done. Hughes resigned from the Supreme Court to 
make the race. The Socialists and Prohibitionists both 
had candidates in the field. With the practical union of 
the Progressive and Republican parties again, the race 
became a close one. 

738. The issues and the result. The issues of the 
campaign were not many. The Republicans asserted 
that the Democrats had practically refused to protect 
American citizens in Mexico and on the high seas. They 
declared that Wilson had sacrificed the nation's honor to 
keep out of war. Hughes attacked the manner of putting 
through the claims of the railroad men for eight hours' 
work a day. The Democrats pointed to Wilson's record 
and took pride in the fact that "he kept us out of war." 
This was a favorite banner in Wilson processions. 

The election itself was full of interest. Wilson won in 
191 2 with fewer votes of the people than Taft and Roose- 
velt. His vote in the Electoral College was larger than 
both of theirs. Wilson won in 191 6 by over 400,000 votes 
of the people, the largest majority ever given a Demo- 
cratic president. His majority of electoral votes was 
very small. 

739. America breaks with Germany. Early in the 
year 191 7 Germany sent the United States word that she 
proposed to break the power of Great Britain by a 



454 THE WORLD WAR 

wide-spread submarine attack. She offered to give the 
United States free passage for one passenger ship a week 
to one port in England. What was to become of our 
milHons and milHons of trade going to England? 

President Wilson immediately ordered the German 
ambassador to leave the country and recalled our ambas- 
sador from Germany. Germany was as good as her word : 
she sank over two hundred ships in February alone. 
Among these were American ships carrying American 
citizens. These acts were stirring up the war feeling. 

740. Germans plotting in America. From the first the 
people of the United States suffered at the hands of Ger- 
man plotters. Germany had hired agents to stir up 
trouble among our laboring men and to blow up our fac- 
tories engaged in turning out munitions. Other agents 
were paid to put bombs secretly on vessels carrying war 
material to the Allies. Newspaper men received German 
gold for setting the cause of Germany before the American 
people in a good light. So dangerous had these agents 
become that President Wilson was compelled to dismiss 
the Austrian ambassador before the break with Germany. 

Early in January, 191 7, the German minister to Mexico 
got word from Germany to offer to restore the states 
of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico. All this 
was to come about providing Mexico would join Japan 
in a war on the United States. 

741. The Kaiser a ruler by divine right. Why did 
Germany find it so hard to get on with us, a friendly 
nation ? Why did she fill this country with spies and paid 
agents? Simply because the Kaiser trusted no nation, no 
matter how friendly. 

The Kaiser claimed to rule Germany by divine right 
just as James I did England a long time ago (§43).^^- 



AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 455 

The Kaiser was an autocrat whose wish was law. It was 
dangerous in Germany to criticize him. But many- 
thousands of the German people were opposed to him 
because he had so much power as the head of the 
army and navy. He influenced the schools to teach 
how much stronger and better the German race was 
than any other. Many of the people of Germany had 
come to believe that no nation was able to beat them 
in war. To make his power more secure his picture 
was placed in an important position in every public 
school; the pupils were taught that their first duty 
was to obey the Kaiser. 

742. The Kaiser dreams of world power. Before this 
Kaiser came to the throne, the German rulers began 
attacking the nations around them. They took a part of 
Denmark (1864); Austria was the next victim (1866); 
France fell into the trap and lost Alsace-Lorraine in 
the War of 1870-71. 

With the present Kaiser on the throne, activity of 
another kind began. Now German influence began to 
extend itself out into the world. Germany obtained 
colonies in Africa. She established posts in China, 
planned and schemed in South America and Mexico. 
She planted business houses in all parts of the world. 
She had already begun to build a great navy, second only 
to Great Britain's. In this way the Kaiser won the 
support of the big business men in Germany. 

The Kaiser encouraged friendship and marriage with 
the smaller countries to the eastward. He even visited 
Turkey and made friends with the Turks. It began to 
be whispered about that the time was coming when the 
Berlin-Bagdad railroad, connecting Germany with the 
East, would be a real thing. 



456 



THE WORLD WAR 



England feared that Germany was aiming at India. 
With the largest and best trained army in the world and 
a growing navy there seemed no limit to the Kaiser's 
ambition, except the British navy. 

AMERICx\ AND THE ALLIES MAKE WAR TOGETHER 

743» The United States joins the Allies in the war 
(April 6, 1917). President Wilson went before Congress 











PRESIDENT WILSON ADDRESSES CONGRESS 



and repeated in telling words the wrongs that Germany 
had done, not only against the United States, but against 
the civilized world. He declared that "vessels of every 
kind, whatever their flag, the character of their cargo, 
their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent 
to the bottom without warning." Germany had already 
attacked us, he said, and hence he only asked Congress 
to declare that Germany was making war upon us. 

On April 6, Congress, amid a crowded house, sent forth 
the decree that threw America on the side of the Allies. 
Hundreds of pacifists and pro-Germans were in Wash- 



AMERICA JOINS THE ALLIES 



457 



ington to prevent this declaration, but all in vain. It 
should be said, however, that thousands of Americans 
whose parents were German were loyal to America. 

744. Not the government alone but the people go to 
war. Since the war opened, thousands of Americans had 
been taking part in it, some as soldiers in the Canadian 
army, others as nurses under the Red Cross, and many 
as helpers in preparing bandages and in giving money. 

Now all the people went in ■.'^^^ millions as soldiers ; mil- 
lions of farmers organized to raise more food; millions 
of women joined the Red Cross to prepare bandages, knit 
socks and sweaters ; and other thousands volunteered to go 
to the hospitals at the front. 

The doctors, too, organized and went to the front to 
care for the wounded on the field of battle and in the 
hospitals. 

Ministers of the gospel volunteered to go with the boys 
CO advise them on moral and religious questions. The 








RED CROSS WORKERS 

Y.M.C.A. and the Y.W.C.A., the Salvation Army, the 
Hebrew Association, and the Knights of Columbus went 
into the war to do their part. 



458 THE WORLD WAR 

The business and professional men in every city and 
town organized to give aid. Sometimes they aided the 
government in the campaigns for getting money, or sat 
on boards of examiners to decide on the fitness of the 
young men who were drafted. There was, therefore, no 
class or party in America which did not throw itself into 
the war with all its power, except the radicals. The 
Sociahst party declared itself opposed to the war, but it 
split in two as a result. 

THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT IN THE WAR 

745. The government. had to do everything at once. 

The American people were a people who always had stood 
for peace and opposed war. Hence, never in our history 
have we been prepared for war when it came. We were 
less prepared than ever for this war, if one thinks of what 
had to be done. Hence we say, the "government had to 
do everything at once." 

746. Congress voted men and money. Congress went 
to its work with great energy. It voted almost every 
measure to carry on the war that the President asked for. 

It was a great task which we had undertaken. How 
could we send an army across the sea in time and of a 
sufficient size to be of any help? We soon had a part 
of our navy in European waters helping to fight the 
submarines. But we needed to build all sorts of ships — 
submarines, submarine chasers, dreadnaughts, super- 
dreadnaughts, vessels to carry soldiers, and ships to carry 
food and guns. 

Airships for fighting had to be built by the thousands. 
We knew how to make airships to sail the air, but to make 
them to carry bombs and guns was a new problem. We 
were a bit slow in getting American airships ready. 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 



459 



American inventors went to work to improve machine- 
guns, big guns, tanks, and airplane engines. Some 
entirely new devices like the depth bomb, used in fighting 
submarines, were invented. 

747. Raising an army. How shall we get our millions 
of men prepared to fight ? "''^ " Volunteers make the finest 
soldiers," said those who remembered the Civil War. 
But the government decided on a more democratic way — 
the "selective draft." Congress ordered all men between 



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.WJ 



L 






f/*\JVhl1^rff?Cf^ "''^i*''"}' 



-'^s.v^z&rjy--^ 









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A TRAINING CAMP IN THE UNITED STATES 



twenty and thirty-one to present themselves before ' ' war- 
boards." These boards selected those that were fit and 
sent them to training camps in different parts of the 
country. Later all between eighteen and forty-five were 
summoned. 

An army of carpenters was at work building the train- 
ing camps, which looked like little cities. Here the boys 
drilled many hours each day. When not drilling, those 
who could not read and write and those who could not 



460 



THE WORLD WAR 



Speak the English language were put in schools where 
they soon got a start in education. The other boys 




:5^^, 



--.^>-t -\i//;"^ 






^'^-^^^feS^- 



A Y. M. C. A. HUT AT ONE OF THE U. S. A. CAMPS 

were busy with athletics of every kind or attending enter- 
tainments given by lectures, by motion picturers, or even 
attending theaters. On Sunday they had an opportunity 
to hear great preachers. The purpose of this was to keep 
the boys "fit" physically and to keep up their spirits. 

748. Pershing goes to France. While the boys were 
being trained, General Pershing was sent to France with 
25,000 men who had seen service on the borders of Mexico 
(§596). How happy the French people were to see the 
splendid-looking American soldiers! These boys were 
just a vanguard of the millions yet to come. 

It made the French people think of the time, long ago, 
when they gave Lafayette (§208), DeKalb (§229), and 
Rochambeau (§233) with thousands of soldiers to aid in 
the American Revolution. 

It was a touching scene when General Pershing, sur- 
rounded by the great men of France at the tomb of 
Lafayette, said: "Lafayette we are here!" 

749. Congress gives the President power over the rail- 
roads, telegraph, coal mines, and food supply. The 
President put the railroads under the control of Secretary 



AMERICA IN THE WAR • 461 

McAdoo, who immediately cut out trains, combined roads, 
and gave trains carrying munitions, food supplies, and 
troops the right of way. Everything else had to wait. 

It was necessary for the government to control the 
carrying of food, clothes, munitions, and soldiers to the 
coast cities. Our allies needed these things badly. Ger- 
many had been pressing them hard for three years, and 
their soldiers were wearing out. 

H. A. Garfield, president of Williams College, was given 
charge of the coal supply. He sent the coal where it was 
most needed and for a short time closed all factories and 
other places of bussiness not doing work necessary for 
the war. 

Herbert C. Hoover, who had control of the food sent to 
Europe for starving people, was given authority over our 
food supplies. He ordered wheatless and meatless days 
for the table. Housewives had a busy time furnishing 
their tables with "war-bread." But the great majority 
of women did their part. 

750. How the government obtained money to run the 
war. In the Civil War the government asked the people 
for millions of money, but in this war it called for billions. 
In the first place the government raised billions of money 
by increasing taxes. It put a heavy tax on incomes of 
men who had plenty of money or other property. It 
taxed heavily the profits of industry. 

Secondly, it raised billions more by borrowing from the 
people. To make the loan very democratic the govern- 
ment issued bonds as small as fifty dollars. To encourage 
the young people to loan their money to the government, 
it sold War Savings Stamps. 

751. What the government did with these billions. 
(i) It loaned $10,000,000,000 to the Allies, who were 



462 



THE WORLD WAR 




GENERAL FOCH 



really fighting our battles till we could get men ready. 
(2) It took large sums to pay the soldiers, the sailors, the 

men working in the shipyards, 
and in the camps. 

The government raised 
from all sources nearly $30,- 
000,000,000. This great sum 
our people must pay in taxes. 
Only those who bought bonds 
and Thrift Stamps will ever 
get any of this money back. 
752. The desperate situa- 
tion on the western front. 
Russia had broken down and 
her soldiers were going home. 
The Germans were rushing 
soldiers from the Russian 
front for a last desperate drive on Paris before the 
American army could reach France. This was in the 
spring and summer of 19 18. 

A desperate call came for American soldiers to aid in 
saving Paris. Only a few hundred thousand had reached 
France. The others were still training in American 
camps. 

Foch, a great French general, was given control in 
March over the Allied troops. Before there had been 
three armies: Belgian, British, and French. Now these 
fought as one man.^^^ This change came none too soon, 
for in March the Germans began their last great effort. 
The whole Allied world was anxious lest the Germans 
should break through the British line. The line wavered, 
but the French came. The fighting was desperate, but 
the city of Amiens, a great railroad center, was saved. 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 



463 



In a few days the Germans struck at the French Hne, 
which Hkewise was driven back but finally held. 

The Germans met a new foe, the Americans. The first 
soldiers sent over were placed among British and French 
veterans to get used to the new ways of fighting. These 
men, with the Second Division, at Chateau-Thierry helped 
to block the last advance of the Germans toward Paris. 

753. Rushing troops to France. The need was desper- 
ate. The Allies were calling loudly, although we were 
sending 50,000 men each month at the beginning of 1918. 

But when the last mighty effort of the Germans threat- 
ened to carry them to Paris and to the English Channel, 
our troops had to be rushed over. But where were the 
ships to carry the men? "They cannot be found," said 
the Germans. 
"Besides, how can 
the Americans get 
over in the face of 
our submarines ? 
And then the 
Americans are not 
good soldiers, for 
they have been 
trained for only 
a short time." 

Ships seemed to 
come from every- 
where. We seized 
nearly one hun- 
dred German vessels in our ports. We rented ships from 
neutral nations. England gave us some and the other 
Allies a few, and we added some new ships which we had 
built. To meet the crisis our allies were willing to turn 







BUILDING NEW SHIPS 



464 



THE WORLD WAR 



ships carrying food to Europe into ships to carry our 
soldier boys. 

War vessels guarded the ships carrying our men so 
that no submarines dared come near them. The depth 
bomb was the terror of the submarine ! 

Ten thousand soldiers reached France every day in 
July, 1918, and by the first of November we had 2,ooo;Ooo 
men in France. 

754. The Allied counter-drive brings victory. The 
Americans in the summer formed a separate army under 
General Pershing. Foch was now ready to strike back 
with all the power of the united armies (July 18). One 
blow after another fell rapidly on the Germans. The 
German line was broken in many places, and the mighty 
guns roared from the North Sea to Switzerland. 






Vx-'^^-'"'^i^-. 






**' i /J. *ii»«tf 




BK, (jUN in action on THE TRENCH FROM 



The American marines-'''' had already covered them- 
selves with glory at Belleau Wood, and now the American 



AMERICA IN THE WAR 465 

soldiers won a brilliant victory at St. Mihiel. There 
500,000 Americans met the best troops Germany had, 





L.-^f^#sAkl 



DESTROYING A SUBMARINE 



captured 16,000, and went smashing through their lines. 

But in the Argonne Forest was fought the biggest 
battle Americans ever took part in. Over a million men 
in khaki fought like heroes for over a month. They drove 
the Germans reeling back toward the Rhine. ^^^ T*he 
British and the French had been hurling back the Ger- 
mans, too. The German people could not believe the 
news of defeat. 

755. Trouble in Germany. The work of the British 
and American navies had been choking the life out of 
Germany. Her people were hungry and tired of fighting. 
They threatened to rise in revolt. 

Austria had been urging peace, for she had been defeated 
by the Italians. Bulgaria (September 30) and Turkey 
(October 31) had quit fighting. Austria, too, ceased 
fighting (November). 

x\ll at once, in November, came the news of a threat- 
ened revolution on the part of the German people. Next, 
the Kaiser fled to Holland. ^•'^ This was Germany's situa- 
tion when she asked Foch for terms of an armistice. 



466 



THE WORLD WAR 




756. The terms given to Germany. The German gen- 
erals came bHndfolded to Foch's camp, while the Allied 
guns were booming all along the battle line. 

On November 11, Foch agreed to the following terms: 
The Germans were to quit Belgium and France, and the 
Allies were to occupy that part of Germany west of the 
Rhine. The Germans were to surrender most of their 



AMERICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE 

cannon, machine guns, airplanes, locomotives, freight cars, 
warships, submarines, and merchant ships to the Allies. 

The common man was on top in Germany. Thus the 
last great stronghold of aristocracy had gone down before 
democracy. 

The guns now ceased to roar, and the world looked on a 
broken and torn Europe. 

757. What the war cost in men. The number of men 
killed in the war staggers the imagination. More than 
7,000,000 men fell in battle and twice as many more were 
wounded. More than 100,000 American boys lost their 
lives, and many times that number were wounded. 

That most of these men were young and strong of 
body. What a mighty loss the world suffered ! It appears 
even greater when we remember the millions of widows 



AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 467 

and orphans the war made. The cost of this war is 
gigantic when to all this we add the suffering in mind 
and body it caused. 

The cost in money and property. The money cost no 
man knows. We can say the nations spent over $200,- 
000,000,000. How much is this? The mind staggers at 
its size. 

But this is not all: the sinking of ships and cargoes, 
the destruction of hundreds of villages and cities, the 
tearing up of acres and acres of farm lands and their 
growing crops, the destruction of the mines and factories 
of Belgium and France make a loss that is unthinkable. 

War is certainly an awful thing, but if this World War 
saved to the people the right to rule themselves as they 
wish, the price paid was not too great. 

AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 

758. The making of peace. The men appointed by 
the Allies met in a suburb of Paris, called Versailles. 
President Wilson journeyed to Europe, and was gladly 
received by all the people because they were happy that 
America came into the war and because the common 
people felt that Wilson stood for democracy. 

Largely through Wilson's influence the League of 
Nations was made a part of the treaty of peace. These 
men worked until June, 191 9, in getting the treaty ready. 
The Germans were called to sign it. They did sign it 
under great protest. They said the treaty was too hard 
on Germany. She had to give up Alsace-Lorraine and 
all her colonies; she had to reduce her arm}^ to 100,000 
men and agree not to train soldiers as in former years; 
she must not build up a great navy as before; she must 
pay $25,000,000,000 to Belgium and France. 



468 THE WORLD WAR 

759. The League of Nations. The first purpose of the 
League was to make war forever impossible. 

This League is given the power to shut off all commerce 
with a nation which goes to war. It may even use force, 
if necessary, to prevent war. To encourage peace each 
nation belonging to the League pledges itself to cut down 
its army and navy and to submit disputes with another 
nation to a grand court made up of the great judges of 
different nations. If any nation violates its pledge, it 
can be expelled from the League. 

760. The Senate fails to ratify the treaty. On the 
return of President Wilson, he called a number of senators 
to the White House to talk over the treaty. The Senate 
opposed the treaty, because they did not like the League 
part of it. 

President Wilson resolved to go on a speaking tour in 
defense of the League. He went as far as the Pacific, but 
while returning he suffered a stroke which made it impos- 
sible for him to speak further. 

The battle went on in the Senate, and the question of 
the League became the main topic of debate in the cam- 
paign of 1920. 

761. The economic and industrial effects of the war on 
America* The war tore the industry of the world to 
pieces. In America it set thousands of men to work in 
munition factories, in machine shops making instruments 
of war, in factories for producing airplanes, in shipyards 
for building new kinds of ships, and in many other new 
works. Not only were the men in strange shops making 
strange things, but they were working for wages greater 
than they had ever received before. 

Thousands of men were taken out of their usual lines 
of work. This made labor scarce in these lines of work. 



AMERICA AFTER WAR 469 

and wages went still higher. The want of labor caused 
a shortage in living suppHes of all kinds and in turn caused 
prices to rise higher. 

The government issued milHons of paper money. This 
disturbed prices again, and they soared still higher. The 
workingman called for a higher wage after the war. When 
he did not get it he struck. There was an era of high 
prices, extravagance, and profiteering. The fall in prices 
did not begin until September, 1920. 

762. The great strike era (1919-20). In many indus- 
tries it was almost impossible for wages to increase as fast 
as prices. In many cases workmen had agreed to work 
for a time at certain wages. But prices were still rising. 

The workmen in New York City engaged in loading 
and unloading ships went on a strike. Ships could not 
be unloaded. Many of them carried perishable products, 
and the loss was great. 

The steel workers struck and tried to stop the making 
of steel. They demanded shorter hours and more pay. 
Rioting occurred in some places, and General Wood was 
called with troops to keep order. 

President Wilson appointed a committee made up of 
strikers, the steel owners, and the public. These men 
met to patch up the difficulty, but could not agree. 

The strike ran on, but the people got the impression 
that the strikers were under the influence of radical 
leaders. The result was the failure of the strike after the 
strikers had lost milHons in wages. 

The soft-coal strike had a different ending. The courts 
were appealed to and ordered the men back to work. 
Winter was on, and the loss in business was very great, 
and the suffering of the people threatened to be wide- 
spread. But the strikers finally went to work. 



470 THE WORLD WAR 

A committee appointed by the President examined 
into the coal situation and finally decided on an increase 
in wages thought just to the miners, to the mine owners, 
and to the public. The people, as a rule, must pa^^ every 
increase in the cost of mining coal or any increase in the 
cost of producing anything else. 

763. The effort to control high prices (1920). The 
government, in going suddenly into a war for which little 
preparation had been made, was compelled to pay high 
prices for everything. As the government was one 
of the first causes of high prices, so it undertook to 
control the high cost of living. It did this by arresting 
and trying certain men who were accused of selling 
goods at" prices unusually high in a time of high prices. 
Some men were found guilty and fined. But it was 
believed that this did not have much effect in lowering 
prices. 

MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR 

764. Effects on the churches. The war tended to 
bring the churches together. The news of how their 
members, wounded and dying, were cared for by men of 
different faiths roused a warm sympathy for one another 
among the different religious denominations. The result 
was that some genuine efforts were made for cooperation 
among churches of widely different beliefs. 

The churches resolved to widen their field of work. To 
do this it became necessary to collect vast sums of money. 
The Methodist church was the first in the field and suc- 
ceeded in pledging over $100,000,000. Other churches 
followed, and each obtained more than it set out for. 

With this money the churches propose to give strength 
to weak churches ; take better care of the country churches ; 



MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 471 

encourage the city churches to carry on home missions 
on a grander scale ; build gymnasiums for the young people 
of the church and neighborhood; and finally widen the 
mission work in foreign fields. Almost every church in 
America has gone into the work of relieving distress in 
Europe. Some have even undertaken the task of restor- 
ing towns in the devastated regions. -"^^ 

765. Growth of the movement for prohibition. At 
first growth in the sentiment for prohibiting the liquor 
traffic was very slow indeed. We have seen its rise and 
fall (§§388, 522). Out of five states Maine alone remained 
steadfast. After the Civil War other states voted for 
prohibition, but only Kansas remained true. 

But within the last ten years prohibition sentiment has 
been rapidly rising. By December, 191 7, twenty-four 
states had gone dry. Congress prohibited liquor from 
being taken into a dry state and expelled it from the 
District of Columbia. 

War caused a rapid growth of sentiment in favor of 
temperance. Congress put the ban on whisky and 
decided that beer should not contain more than 2.75 per 
cent of alcohol. Finally Congress voted for the Eight- 
eenth Amendment, and forty-five state legislatures rati- 
fied it. It thus became a part of the Constitution (1920). 

In spite of the fact that prohibition has been written 
in the Constitution, there arose a considerable demand 
for an interpretation of the amendment which will give 
the right to drink beer and wine. This was one of the 
questions in debate in the presidential campaign (.1920). 

766. The struggle for the rights of woman. The World 
War, too, had its bearings on the question of woman 
suffrage, as we shall see. 

Far back in the days of the American Revolution, one 



472 THE WORLD WAR 

brave woman, the wife of John Adams, raised her voice 
for the rights of woman (§239). A bit later New Jersey 
took action favorable for woman (§240). 

Growing out of the world-wide movement for moral 
reform (1830), the cause of woman took on new life and 
energy. Very few were the rights then belonging to 
woman. She could not go to school in either high school 
or college where men were. Scarcely a business or any 
other occupation was open to her. If a woman with 
property married, her husband took over its control. 
She was shut out from becoming a lawyer, a doctor, or a 
preacher. 

When a brave woman, like Frances Wright of New 
York, demanded that these privileges be granted to 
women, men poked fun at her; and women, too, were not 
slow to smile at her "queer notions." 

767. The woman's movement grows. The aboHtion 
agitation caused a step forward in the new movement. 
Some great men saw that woman's help was needed in 
the anti-slavery cause (§407). Abraham Lincoln, a 
young man just then plunging into Illinois politics, 
declared he was in favor of everybody sharing the privi- 
leges of government, "by no means excluding the females " 
(1836). 

The first national convention in favor of woman's 
rights was held in Seneca Falls, New York ( 1 848) . It was 
called by Lucretia Mott, Martha C. Wright, Elizabeth 
Cady Stanton, and Mary Ann McClintock. It tried to 
arouse the attention of the country by sending forth a 
"Declaration of Rights." 

768. Rapid progress of woman's rights. Although the 
newspapers and writers still made fun of "petticoat" 
government, the "Declaration of Rights" won other 



MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 473 

women to their ranks. Among these were Margaret 
Fuller, Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, and Julia Ward 
Howe. 

With these new recruits and the help of the abolition 
leaders their hopes rose high. They were looking forward 
to the time when universal suffrage would prevail. But 
the Civil War came, and they saw their "brother in black " 
given the ballot which had been denied them. 

769. First victories in the West. Disappointed by 
Congress, women now turned to the states. They had 
been encouraged to do this by what occurred in the new 
state of Kansas. The legislature had given women the 
right to vote in school elections (1861). The women 
organized a great state campaign for complete suffrage. 
It was an odd sight to see public meetings held by 
women in every sort of place in Kansas. They did not 
win, but they took courage from the size of their vote. 

The West was their hope. In 1869 the territory of 
Wyoming granted women complete suffrage. When 
Wyoming entered the Union, so well pleased had she 
been that full suffrage was written into her state consti- 
tution. 

In four more years Colorado joined Wyoming in favor 
of women. While Utah was still a territory, her men 
granted women this boon, and like Wyoming, when she 
became a state, Utah again established the right of women 
to vote. The fourth state to vote in favor of woman 
suffrage was another mountain state, Idaho (1896). 

For fourteen years afterward, the many campaigns for 
woman's vote failed. The aggressive mountain states 
had nearly all been won for women. 

In 1 910-12 came a return wave in favor of woman's 
political rights. Washington began the movement (19 10) 



474 THE WORLD WAR 

which swept in California (191 2), Oregon, Arizona, and 
Kansas (1913). These victories caused great rejoicing 
among the women. They were hardly done rejoicing 
when news came that far-away Alaska had placed herself 
under their banner and had granted suffrage to women. 
The next year Nevada and Montana came to their 
support (1914). 

In 191 7 they carried New York for woman's suffrage 
by over 100,000 majority. The states of Illinois, Indiana, 
Ohio, North Dakota, and Nebraska gave the women the 
right to vote on certain questions. The movement 
seemed to be gaining great power, but certain old states 
still held back. 

770. The Susan B. Anthony Amendment. This amend- 
ment, first introduced in 1877, was named for Miss 
Anthony, a famous suffragist living in Rochester, New 
York. It read: "The right of citizens of the United 
States to vote shall not be denied by the United States 
or any state on account of sex." 

For a long time there seemed little hope of the adoption 
of the amendment. The great progressive movement 
stirred public sentiment to its depths (191 2) and the 
Progressive party stood for woman suffrage. In the 
campaign of 1916 Hughes, the Republican, favored 
suffrage by national amendment, and Wilson, the Demo- 
crat, by state action. 

771. Congress takes action. The great victories won 
by women opened the eyes of Congress, and the Lower 
House passed the Anthony Amendment on January 10, 
1918. The Senate followed more tardily. The amend- 
ment went to the people of the various states. It could 
hardly fail, for woman in the war had proven her ability 
to take man's place in the work of war. The war could 
not have succeeded without her. 



MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 475 

But old prejudices die hard, and it was not until the 
campaign of 1920 that the thirty-sixth state voted in 
favor of the amendment and it became a part of the 
Constitution. 

772. The campaign of 1920. Long before the time for 
the nominating conventions the Republicans had several 
candidates in the field. Among these were General 
Wood, Governor Lowden of Illinois, Senator Johnson of 
California, and Senator Harding of Ohio. The Demo- 
crats, too, had a number of candidates. Among them 
were ex-Secretary McAdoo, Attorney-General Palmer, 
and Governor Cox of Ohio. 

The Republicans met at Chicago, and after a hard 
battle nominated Harding of Ohio for president and 
Coolidge of Massachusetts for the vice-presidency. The 
Democrats went to San Francisco and nominated Cox for 
the first place and Assistant Secretary of Navy Roosevelt 
for the second place. 

The main questions under debate in this campaign 
were as follows: the League of Nations, which most 
Republicans opposed and most Democrats supported ; the 
question of prohibition, which both parties tried to avoid; 
and Wilson's administration. The Republicans asserted 
that it was wasteful and extravagant, and that President 
Wilson was an autocrat. The Democrats denied the 
truth of these charges. 

The Prohibitionists nominated a man from Ohio. This 
made the campaign unique in having three candidates 
from the same state. For the fourth time the Socialists 
nominated Eugene V. Debs. 

The campaign was very bitter. It resulted in Hard- 
ing's winning a larger majority over Cox in both the 
people's vote and the electoral vote than has ever been 
given to any candidate. 



476 THE WORLD WAR 

SUGGESTED READINGS 

References for teachers: Bassett, History of the World War; World^s 
Work, igi4-2o; Review of Reviews, 1914-20; Independent, 1914-20; 
Outlook, 1914-20; Literary Digest, 1914-20; Current Events, 1914-20; 
Rose, Origins of the War; McMaster, The United States in the World 
War. 

References for pupils: Powell, The Spirit of Democracy; Van Dyke, 
Fighting for France; Bott, Cavalry of the Clouds; Gibbons, And They 
T/iought We Wouldn't Fight; O'Brien, Outwitting the Hun; Paine, The 
Fighting Fleets. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS 

I. Imagine a familiar conversation with ex-President Roose- 
velt, one with ex-President Taft, and one with President Wilson on 
the sinking of the "Lusitania." 2. Take a trip on a submarine. 3. 
Another in an airship. 4. Write about your experience in a tank 
battle. 5. Write a composition on your father's, mother's, sister's, 
or brother's part in the war. 



THE APPENDIX 

THE NOTES 

1. If the pupils have read that charming httle book, Old Europe 
and Young America, pubhshed by Rand McNally and Company, they 
will need to read the next pages only by way of review. 

2. How long an English village may be kept in one family by pass- 
ing from father to son, may be seen in the fact that an English noble- 
man has recently sold his village (191 8). This shows how long old 
customs will live. 

3. Many kings once made their people believe that they ruled by 
"divine right." The last great ruler to fool his people thus was 
Kaiser William II, of Germany. 

4. For hundreds of years the Turks held the Holy Land. They 
crossed into Europe and killed thousands of Christians. But it 
remained for the British in the great World War to defeat the Turk 
and capture the Holy Land. For a fuller story of the Crusades and 
the great men who battled in them see Old Europe and Young America, 
221-244. 

5. This was a happy mistake because there were few men in the 
world then bold enough to sail half way around the earth even to find 
India. Columbus figured the distance was only 4,000 miles or less, 
if he sailed west. 

6. Sailors now know that the compass will vary a bit in some parts 
of the earth. But neither Columbus nor his sailors knew this. Colum- 
bus found it hard to invent an explanation that would satisfy his 
sailors. 

7. Jealousy was the cause of his arrest. Queen Isabella set him 
free. 

8. Americus cannot be blamed for what others did. Columbus, 
however, has had his full share of honor: Poetry hails this country as 
the "Land of Columbia," and many towns and cities, a district, and 
a imi versify have taken his name. 

9. The Mexicans and Peruvians had made more progress than any 
other Indians. It took long and hard fighting to conquer them. 
Peruvians had the llama to carry packs for them, but the Mexicans 
had no pack animal. These countries were rich in silver and poured 
millions into the lap of Spain. 

10. De Soto wandered westward as far as Oklahoma and as far 
north as southern Missouri, it is thought. 

477 



478 THE APPENDIX 

11. This name was given by Coronado to the bitffalo or American 
bison. 

12. The French king demanded to know v/hether "our first father, 
Adam, made them [Spain and Portugal] his sole heirs .... and 
until I do, I shall feel at liberty to seize all the land in the New World 
I can get." 

13. The leader of the Huguenots in France was Coligny. He won 
great fame as a soldier and received permission from the king of 
France, a Catholic, to plant a colony in Florida. 

14. The rivalry between Spain a:id England grew into a quarrel 
which marks a turning point in the history of the world. Both nations 
were proud and jealous. Religion was added to their differences. 
England was Protestant and Spain Roman Catholic. Englishmen 
were seeking trade everywhere in the world, and so was Spain. Eng- 
lish sailors fell upon Spanish ships laden with gold and silver from 
Mexico and Peru. 

Holland and Spain had the same differences, except that Spain 
claimed the right to send governors to rule the Dutch. The governors 
were cruel, and the Dutch revolted. Then followed a long and bloody 
war. So desperate did the Spaniards become that they assassinated 
the Dutch leader, William the Silent. England then came to the 
help of the Dutch. The Spaniards were angrier at the English than 
ever and resolved to send the great Armada to punish England. The 
destruction of this great fleet "meant safety for England, freedom for 
the Dutch, and the decline of Spain." England went bravely forward 
with planting settlements in America. 

15. The Iroquois were composed of the Mohawks, the Oneidas, 
the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas. These made up the 
Five Nations. The Tuscaroras, driven from the South (1713), joined 
the Iroquois. After this these Indians were called the Six Nations. 

16. The Spaniards kept a sharp eye on English settlements. How 
they felt about Enghshmen occupying Virginia may be seen from a 
letter to the Spanish king written by the Spanish ambassador: "It 
will be serving God and your Majesty to drive these villains out from 
there [Jamestown] and hang them." 

17. Smith was captured by the Indians. Just as he was about to 
be killed, Pocahontas, the beautifvtl young daughter of the Indian 
chief, so the story runs, sprang to Smith's rescue and claimed him as 
her own. Pocahontas became the good angel to the colony, telling 
the settlers of Indian attacks and helping them to find food. She 
married John Rolfe, and they visited friends in England. Pocahontas 
was received as an "Indian princess" by the king and queen. John 
Randolph of Roanoke, once a leader of the House of Representatives 
and a friend of Jefferson, was descended from Pocahontas. The 
second Mrs. Woodrow Wilson is also related to Pocahontas. 

18. Each act named in this paragraph is an "old home" custom for 
which Englishmen had long struggled. TheVirginians had tried many 



THE APPENDIX 479 

new experiments in governing themselves, but now were glad to get 
back to old English ways. 

Here are some of the leading men trained for the great Revolution 
by the House of Burgesses: Washington, Jefferson, Richard Henry 
Lee, Patrick Henry, Edmund Pendleton, Benjamin Harrison, Richard 
Bland, Edmund Randolph, John Marshall, and George Mason. 

19. The rule of the two sets of Stuart kings forms an interesting 
chapter in EngUsh history (1603-88). James I and Charles I (1603-40) 
quarreled with Parliament over money and religion. James threw 
leaders of Parliament into prison and drove Puritans out of England. 
Charles quarreled with Parliament, dismissed it, and declared he would 
never call another. But the Scots saved the day. They invaded 
England, because Charles was trying to force them to be Episcopalians. 
The King had to call Parliament to get money to fight. Parliament 
and King quarreled and went to war. Oliver Cromwell, the great 
Puritan general, overthrew the King's soldiers, and thrust him into 
prison. Parliament tried and executed Charles I. Cromwell now 
became the head of the government. He was a stern, unyielding man, 
but a great soldier. His government was carried on mainly by com- 
mon men. He showed what he could do. His soldiers were called 
"Ironsides." They often sang and prayed before going into battle. 

After Cromwell died. Englishmen called Charles H to be king 
(1660). He was lazy and easy-going and ran the government deeply 
into debt. His brother, James H, succeeded him (1684). Neither king 
learned anything from the past. James turned tyrant. English 
people thought he was trying to make Englishmen into Catholics. 
Englishmen rose against him, and he fled to France. The revolution 
was short. William and Mary of Holland were called to the throne, 
and Parliament passed what was known as the Bill of Rights. The 
rights named in this document were claimed by Englishmen living in 
America, as well as those in England (1689). 

20. The Puritans settled the town of Annapolis, at first called 
Providence. When they got hold of Maryland's government, they 
removed the capital from Saint Mary's to Annapolis. We all know 
that here is located our great naval academy. 

21. See note 19. 

22. Carolina extended from Virginia to Florida and was named 
in honor of the King. The constitution was called the Grand Model. 
It was a grand failure. It planned to establish a kind of feudalism 
with all different classes of people. 

23. The "pretenders" were descendants of James II. They 
claimed the right to rule in place of the Georges. The pretenders were 
Roman Catholics, and so were some of the Scotch Highlanders. 

24. In France, Protestants were called Huguenots. They were 
followers of the great reformer, John Calvin. They were persecuted in 
France, and we have seen them trying to found a colony. Thousands 
of them were slain in the great Massacre of St. Bartholemew's Day. 



48o THE APPENDIX 

Henry IV finally freed them from persecution. They prospered. 
They were skilled in industry and had many learned men. Louis 
XIV did not like them, so he took away their freedom of worship. 
Thousands fled to Germany, to Holland, to England, and to America. 

25. Do you know anyone whose ancestors came over in the "May- 
flower"? Find some and have them talk about the voyage. Myles 
Standish was not a Pilgrim, but had joined the Dutch when they were 
fighting against Spain. 

26. The Petition of Right was a famous landmark along the road 
to English liberty. It is only a bit less noted than Magna Charta. 
The King promised to obey Parliament. See note 19. 

27. See note 19. 

28. Roger Williams, a young Puritan preacher, was driven from 
England (1632). He preached in several towns in Massachusetts 
and stirred up the people by his doctrines. He did not worry over the 
efi^ects of his doctrines, but leaders in the colony did. 

Anne Hutchinson ^criticized the preachers and the officers of the 
colony. The men were divided in their opinions of her, but the 
majority were against her. 

Modern society does not agree with the Puritans that Roger 
Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson were dangerous citizens. 

29. See note ig. 

30. This constitution did not mention the king, but only the people. 
It created a government. Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, and the 
Mayflower Compact did not pretend to set up a government. 

31. Java, Sumatra, and other islands still belong to Holland. 

32. While Hudson was sailing up this river, Champlain was explor- 
ing the near-by lake which bears his name, and John Smith was trading 
for food with the Indians in Virginia. 

33. This wall gave its name to Wall Street, now famous as the 
money center of the United States. 

34. The Navigation Acts were first aimed at the Dutch. These 
acts forbade them to trade with the English colonies. The Dutch 
were angry, and finally wai- broke out. Their great sea captain, Van 
Tromp, fastened a broom to his masthead and declared he would sweep 
England from the seas. But the English, too, were great sea fighters 
and forced the Dutch to make peace (1653). Cromwell was glad, 
for he, too, was a Protestant, and England and Holland had long 
been friends. Charles II did not feel this way and seized the colony 
of New Amsterdam (1664). 

35. This was done in honor of James, Duke of York and Albany. 

36. The Bowery is the name of another famous New York street. 
It is the home of poor people. 

37. The soldiers of Gustavus went into battle singing and praying. 
The Germans hold his name in grateful remembrance. 

38. Penn stood at the parting of the ways. He could be a fine 
gentleman, belong in high society, and attend the king's court or he 



THE APPENDIX 481 

could be a poor and despised Quaker. Banishment and jails could 
not move him. He stood firm as a rock. 

39. The names of persons such as Paul Revere, John Jay, Boudinot, 
Dabney, Laurens, and Sevier and of places such as Faneuil Hall, 
Debrosses Ferry, and New Rochelle remind the people today of the 
debt owed to France since colonial times. 

40. An interesting survival to our day is seen in the classes existing 
among the servants in any community. 

41. A common way of showing respect which survives to our time 
is the custom of lifting the hat to ladies. Gentlemen of equal rank in 
Germany lift the hat when they meet each other. 

42. These rude ways of living on the frontier were common when 
Lincoln was a boy. 

43. Lawrence Washington, George's half-brother, spent a year or 
more in a London school. Between 1760 and 1765 a score or more of 
young men from Charleston went to England to attend school. 

44. John Bartram was poor and was an orphan at thirteen. He 
studied after his day's work was done. He founded in Philadelphia 
the first botanical garden in America. He wrote papers for European 
botanical societies. A friend said that Bartram would go one hun- 
dred miles to see a new plant. 

45. Augustine Washington, father of George, was captain of a ship 
carrying iron ore from Virginia to London. There he had the happy 
fortune to fall in love with Mary Ball, called "the Rose of Epping 
Forest" on account of her beauty. She, too, was a Virginian, visiting 
in London. They were married. 

46. John Hancock of Boston, one of the richest men in the colo- 
nies, made his fortune largely by making rum. 

47. At different times during the colonial period the southern 
colonies, through their legislatures, sent earnest protests to Parliament 
against dumping slaves upon them. 

48. The Barbadoes and Jamaica were the leading English West 
India islands. 

49. Lord Chatham called them the Bible of the English Consti- 
tution. 

50. Two brothers of George Washington were members of the Ohio 
Company. Before this George had gone across the Blue Ridge Moan- 
tains and surveyed the lands of his friend Lord Fairfax. He had 
spent several years in this wild region and knew the ways of the Indian. 

51. Before Braddock died he saw his mistake. He gave his favorite 
servant. Bishop, to Washington. At Braddock's grave Washington 
read prayers. Washington himself had four bullets through his clothes 
and a number of horses shot under him. 

52. Longfellow's Evangeline is based on scenes connected with the 
scattering of the Acadians. 

53. The proof of this is found in the fact that Parliament paid back 
to the colonies $5,000,000. 

17 



402 THE APPENDIX 

54. In a nook in Westminster Abbey may be seen the monument 
erected by M assachusetts to the memory of General Howe. 

55. The people of Canada, loving the names of both Wolfe and 
Montcalm, have erected a single monument to keep alive the memory 
of their heroic deeds. 

56. James Otis, a Boston lawyer, carried the question to the courts. 
He resigned his office under the king to plead the cause of the 
merchants. He declared that "our ancestors and we, their descend- 
ants, are entitled to all the rights of the British Constitution." In 
this he struck the "keynote" of the first half of the Revolution. 

George III had an excuse for using these writs, for the Americans 
were great smugglers. It cost England $40,000 to collect $5,000 in 
revenue. 

57. The leaders were James Otis, Christopher Gadsden and John 
Rutledge of South Carolina, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, and the 
Livingstons of New York. 

58. The non-importation agreements had almost destroyed the 
American trade of the English merchants. 

59. England proposed to spend this money in America by paying 
the king's officers. 

60. The English Whigs were having exciting times. A member 
had been expelled from Parliament for criticizing the king in No. 45 
of a certain paper. The Massachusetts assembly gave ninety-two 
votes against recalling the "Circular Letter." In England toasts were 
drunk to "ninety-two" and "forty-five" as symbols of liberty. In 
America ninety-two patriots would drink forty-five toasts, or the dance 
would have ninety-two jigs and forty-five minuets, or ninety-two Sons 
of Liberty would raise a flagstaff forty-five feet high. This shows a 
warm sympathy between English and American Whigs. 

61. The Regulating Act raised a new question that was deeper 
than taxation. May Parliament change colonial charters or consti- 
tutions which it did not make? America said "No." William Pitt, 
now Lord Chatham, agreed with them. In the debate in the House 
of Lords, Chatham did Samuel Adams the high honor of quoting from 
his "Circular Letter," declaring that those statements would be 
Chatham's to the end. 

62. Daniel Webster advised young men who wished to drink deeply 
of the spirit and life of the Revolutionary fathers to read the noble 
papers sent forth by this Congress. Lord Chatham said: "When 
your Lordships look at these papers, when you consider their decency, 
firmness, and wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and wish to 
make it your own." 

63. Franklin had been in England for several years as the agent 
for some of the colonies. Eight years before, the Whigs in Parliament 
summoned him to appear before a committee on the Stamp Act. 
His answers, no doubt, had much to do with the repeal of that act. 
Chatham invited Franklin to be present on the day he presented his 



THE APPENDIX 4S3 

plan to the House of Lords. It gave the great orator an opportunity 
to praise Frankhn by declaring that he was an honor to the English 
name and ranked with the great men of the world. 

64. Afterward John Randolph declared that they were "raised 
in a minute, armed in a minute, fought in a minute, and vanquished 
the enemy in a minute." 

65. Lafayette, not yet eighteen, a captain of artillery in the old 
fortress of Metz, listened to the story of how the American farmers 
fought that day at Lexington. He then resolved to link his name and 
fortune with the American cause. How fitting that American soldiers 
who captured Metz should permit the French to enter first, on the heels 
of the retreating Germans (1918). 

66. In two battles the Americans had proved themselves sharp- 
shooters. From childhood they -had been taught to handle the gun. 
All pioneer people are skillful in the use of arms. 

67. In a few days brave General Morgan appeared in camp and 
saluted Washington, saying: "From the right bank of the Poto- 
mac." His men were Washington's own neighbors. They had marched 
to Cambridge, six hundred miles, in twenty-one days. They bore 
on their hunting shirts Patrick Henry's famous words, "Give me 
liberty or give me death!" Washington got down from his horse and 
shook hands with each man. 

68. George III, a German by descent, called upon one of the 
German princes for help. He paid so much a head for the Hessian 
soldiers. Congress offered them free land, and hundreds deserted. 

69. This was the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. The 
people of this region were Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. 

70. There were able men among the Tories. Many of them were 
well-to-do and were educated. They were the "upper classes" in 
many communities. Among them were Governor Hutchinson of 
Massachusetts, Lord Fairfax of Virginia, and Count Rumford. The 
Count went to England and held high position. He finally joined the 
armies of the king of Bavaria. The king made him a general. In 
Munich, the capital of Bavaria, stands a monument erected to his 
memory. It is estimated that 40,000 Tories fled to Canada and New 
Brunswick. 

71. Jefferson was skillful in the use of the pen. He was true to 
the facts in the case in laying the reasons for the Declaration of 
Independence at the door of the king, and in not blaming the 
English people. 

72. Howe brought a pardon from George III. He directed it 
to "George Washington, Esq." Washington returned the letter 
unopened. The next time it came addressed to General George 
Washington. Washington sent a short reply, stating that the Ameri- 
cans needed no pardon since they had done no wrong. 

Nathan Hale, a school teacher, disguised himself and went to Howe's 
camp to gather news for Washington. He was discovered, arrested, 



484 THE APPENDIX 

and tried as a spy. Just before he was hanged he declared : "I only- 
regret that I have but one life to give for my country." 

73. Washington's army was without money. Congress did not 
have any. After pledging them his own fortune, Washington obtained 
$50,000, which his friend Robert Morris had raised by going from door 
to door in Philadelphia. This tided them over, and they were ready 
for Princeton. 

74. Cornwallis never forgot the "trick" Washington played him 
at Trenton. At Yorktown, Cornwallis remarked to Washington: 
"Nothing can excel your Excellency's skill at Trenton." 

75. At Fort Stanwix, after the retreat of St. Leger, the brave 
backwoodsmen heard that Congress had adopted a flag. They 
immediately ran up a flag to celebrate the victory. It was made 
from a white shirt, a blue jacket, and red stripes from a petticoat. 

The patriots had used different flags in different parts of the coun- 
try. One contained a picture of a rattlesnake with the words: 
' ' Don't tread on me . ' ' Another contained the words of Patrick Henry : 
"Liberty or Death." Colonel Moultrie, defending Charleston (1776) 
against the British fleet, used a blue flag with a white crescent and the 
word "Liberty" in large letters. The Pine Tree flag was a favorite, 
too. 

But the Star-Spangled Banner grew out of the red flag of England. 
Washington, at Boston, raised a flag containing the crosses of St. George 
and St. Andrew, but the red fleld had been divided into thirteen stripes, 
red and white. The colonies were still hoping for understanding with 
George III. They had gone to war only for this end. 

When Congress lost hope of peace, it adopted (1777) the Stars and 
Stripes as the flag of the new republic. The only change from Wash- 
ington's flag was to put thirteen white stars on a blue background in 
place of the crosses. 

About a year before this action Betsy Ross of Philadelphia, at the 
request of Washington, Robert Morris, and George Ross, made a flag 
like the one voted by Congress. Betsy Ross's home, where she 
made the flag, still stands, an object of veneration, preserved by the 
Daughters of the American Revolution. 

76. Arnold and Morgan did most of the fighting at Saratoga. 
Burgoyne said to General Morgan: "Sir, you command the finest 
regiment in the world!" This was a regiment of sharpshooters. A 
wounded German, lying on the ground, shot Arnold and shattered his 
leg wounded at Quebec. An American soldier made for the German 
to run his bayonet through him. Arnold cried: "For God's sake 
don't hurt him! He's a fine fellow!" What a hero Arnold would 
have been had he died in this battle! 

77. The "Conway Cabal" plotted to have Congress turn Wash- 
ington out and put Gates in his place. The plotters were discovered, 
and Washington stood higher in the estimation of the people than 
before. 



THE APPENDIX 485 

78. Many of the better educated Frenchmen sympathized with 
Enghsh and American Whigs. They hoped for the day when France 
would become a repubhc. The king feared the influence of this class 
of people as well as of the common people. 

79. The battle was going well until General Lee began to retreat. 
Washington rode on the field, reprimanded Lee, ordered him to the 
rear, and himself restored order. Lee was tried before a military court 
and dismissed from the anny. 

80. "Bon Homme Richard" means "Good man Richard." It was 
named in honor of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac. 

81. Here fell Count Pulaski at the head of his famous legion while 
making a charge. He was a brave Pole and died far from home and 
native land, while fighting for freedom in America. 

82. Marion was a small man but a mighty warrior. He was a 
Huguenot and was called the "Swamp Fox" by the British. He 
invited a British officer to dine with him one day. Marion's servant, 
as they sat on a log, brought some baked sweet potatoes on pieces of 
bark! The Englishman resigned and went home, declaring it was no 
use fighting such people. 

83. De'Kalb, a general in the French army, came to America to 
help the colonists. The people of South Carolina, loving his name, 
erected on Camden battlefield a monument to honor his memory. 
Lafayette, his comrade in arms, laid the cornerstone on his last visit 
to America (1824). 

84. Tarleton in this battle, in a hand-to-hand encounter with 
Colonel Washington, received a wound in the hand. He was not per- 
mitted to forget this. Tarleton remarked to some ladies that he had 
never had the pleasure of meeting Colonel Washington. It was sug- 
gested that if he had "only looked behind him at Cowpens he would 
have had that pleasure." On another occasion he said he understood 
that Washington was so ignorant that he could not even write. A 
lady replied : ' ' You bear the proof that he can at least make his mark. ' ' 

85. Greene was rewarded by his countrymen. Congress gave him 
a medal, South Carolina a sum of money, and Georgia a beautiful 
plantation. He was Washington's favorite general. 

86. The French king, according to the treaty (1778), sent a large 
army to America under Count Rochambeau. It was at Newport, 
Rhode Island. Washington called it to New York to join him in an 
attack on that city. But when the news reached Washington that a 
French fleet was coming to the Chesapeake, he changed his plan and 
started for Yorktown. 

87. Hanover is a German state over which the Georges of England 
ruled. 

88. How fortunate for America that her friends in England were 
again called to power! Besides Rockingham there were Shelburne 
and Camden, old friends of Lord Chatham, Richmond, who made the 
motion for independence in 1778, Grafton, Conway, and Cavendish. 



486 THE APPENDIX 

Burke was not given a place in the Cabinet, but he was the greatest 
defender of the treaty in the House of Commons. 

89. Washington certainly was a man who loved his country. He 
would not take a cent of pay for his services during the Revolution. 
Lafayette, too, gave his services to America without pay. 

90. But what they did was all very simple compared with the 
many things the stay-at-home people had to do in the World War 
(1918). 

91. Maryland was the last state to ratify the Articles. She had a 
good reason. She owned no western lands by which she could pay 
her soldiers. She held back until all western lands were given to the 
nation. 

92. Not only Congress, but the states issued millions of paper 
money. It took $100 in paper money to buy a pair of shoes (1781), 
and $1200 to purchase a cow. 

93. Washington had refused to go to Philadelphia as chairman of 
the Society of Cincinnati, which was to meet there. He said he could 
not very well go to this new convention. Some friends advised him 
to stay away. They did not want Washington's name connected with 
a failure! 

94. Washington was the greatest character in America. Franklin 
was the wisest man in the English-speaking world and the oldest man 
in the convention. Hamilton, a foreigner born in the West Indies, 
educated in King's College, was the youngest man but one in the con- 
vention, thirty years old. He wanted a stronger government than the 
one made. Madison was the best read man on the subjects to come 
before the convention; he was the author of the Virginia Plan which 
formed the basis of the Constitution. He made a shorthand report 
of the speeches, motions, and votes of the convention. Madison is 
called the Father of the Constitution. 

95. Among the opponents of the Constitution were some of the 
ablest men in the country: Elbridge Gerry, Samuel Adams, John 
Hancock, George Clinton, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, George 
Mason, and others. 

96. The small states were happy. They had been made equal to 
the larger states in the Senate. The Senate had been given unusual 
powers. It could accept or reject treaties, accept or reject the presi- 
dent's cabinet, accept or reject any United States judge, and so on. 
When the election of a president was thrown into the House, each state 
had one vote. 

97. Afterward these arguments were gathered up and put in a 
book, which you may now buy under the name of the Federalist. 

98. The House now has 415 members, almost five times the number 
of senators. 

99. A growing demand has arisen for a president for six years with 
no reelection. The southern Confederacy had the six-year term for 
its president. 



THE APPENDIX 487 

100. The word "cabinet" is not in the Constitution, but is taken 
from the Enghsh government. The head of the Enghsh cabinet is 
called the prime minister. He must choose the other members from 
Parliament. The prime minister and his cabinet sit in Parliament, 
listen to the debates, take part in them, and vote on the bills, for they 
are members of Parliament. If the President were to choose a man 
from Congress for his cabinet, this man'would have to resign from Con- 
gress. The cabinet presents most bills in Parliament. If Parhament 
should not agree with the cabinet, the latter would have to resign at 
once. The president and his cabinet do not introduce bills in Congress. 
If Congress and the president do not agree, no change takes place. 

1 01. A comparison of these first ten amendments with the English 
Bill of Rights will show why they are so called. 

102. The Maryland factory was owned by Englishmen. When 
they had to give it up, through the interest of the Washington family, 
probably, it was turned into a shop for making cannon balls. 

103. Cotton, before this time, was not raised much in the South. 

104. Washington had journeyed through parts of this wild region. 
He owned over 30,000 acres here. He was deeply interested in holding 
these western settlers in the new nation. 

105. Electors meet in their own states and vote for president. The 
Constitution (Art. II, §1, ^3) declared that the person receiving the 
most votes should be president and that the one having the next highest 
number should be vice-president. Amendment Twelve has changed this. 

106. The cabinet now contains ten departments. Its growth into 
great departments and sub -departments is a tine illustration of the 
"Unwritten American Constitution." 

107. The agreement to pay the state debts raised great opposition, 
and the measure at first failed. But Jefferson and Hamilton put their 
heads together and agreed that if enough northern votes were given 
to locate the capital on the Potomac after 1800, enough southern 
votes would be given to pass the Assumption Bill, as the bill for paying 
the debt of the states was called. 

108. Among others who were Federalists we may name Washing- 
ton, John Adams, John Jay, and John Marshall. 

109. Among other Republicans we may name Madison, Clinton, 
Samuel Adams, and Albert Gallatin, a Swiss immigrant and a great 
financier. The names given to these parties were not used as they now 
are. The Federalists of Washington's time were more nearly like 
the RepubUcans of today, while the Republicans of Jefferson's day were 
more nearly like the Democrats of our time. 

no. This Congress had not met for nearly two hundred years. 
It was called the "Estates General." You can think what it meant 
to the people of France, if you try to imagine what America would 
do without our Congress for so long a time. 

For a long time French kings and their nobles lived high and spent 
the money given in taxes very wastefuUy in drinking, gambling, and 



488 THE APPENDIX 

feasting. But the common people were in poverty. Our Revolution 
against a tyrant king stirred the French people to greater action. They 
had welcomed our Benjamin Franklin, and we had warmly received 
their Lafayette. The great explosion came when the common people 
of Paris arose and stormed the Bastile (July 14, 1789). This was the 
great prison in which the king had shut men up for speaking against 
him and his government. Republican France now celebrates this 
day each year much as we do the Fourth of July. 

But in 1789 the French leaders of the Revolution had had but little 
experience in managing governments. They quarreled among them- 
selves, and the "Reign of Terror" soon followed. After the leaders 
had killed each other, Napoleon Bonaparte came to the front. He was 
the greatest soldier Europe had ever seen. For over a dozen years 
his soldiers defeated all enemies and finally made him emperor of the 
French people. While Napoleon was a wise ruler in many ways, he 
was a selfish tyrant. 

111. America could not agree to this rule. If she did, no EngHsh- 
man could become an American. 

112. Napoleon remarked to some Americans: "Ah, gentlemen 
.... the measure of his fame [Washington's] is full. Posterity 
will talk of him with reverence as the founder of a great empire, 
when my name will be lost in the vortex of revolutions." A monu- 
ment built in his memory, containing separate stones given by the 
great nations and by our states, stands 555 feet high in the city bear- 
ing his name. The home of his forefathers has been searched out in 
England and a tablet has been placed there in his honor. Both 
England and France have honored him with monuments. 

113. President Adams in his message to Congress called these men 
X, Y, and Z. Hence this is usually called the X. Y. Z. affair. 

1 14. Laws quite similar to the Alien and Sedition Laws were passed 
during Wilson's second administration. The danger was much 
greater in the great World War, because there were more foreigners 
in America than in Adams' time. 

115. Congress resolved to have no more disputes over who was 
president. The Constitution was amended so that the electors are 
required to make two lists, one for president and another for vice- 
president (Amendment XII). 

116. The capital had been at New York, then at Philadelphia for 
ten years, and was finally located in the new city of Washington. 
The last was a place chosen by Washington himself, and was then in 
the fields, where cows and hogs roamed at will and where wagons 
toiled through muddy and unpaved streets. 

Here it was that Jefferson estabhshed the custom of sending his 
message to Congress to be read. This custom ran until 1913, when 
President Wilson broke it by reading his message in person to Congress. 

117. Burr hated Hamilton and killed him in a duel (1804). Public 
sentiment was so hot against Burr that he became an outcast. He 



THE APPENDIX 489 

organized an expedition and floated down the Ohio and Mississippi 
to Natchez. Jefferson had him arrested for treason. He was tried 
and set free. 

118. This woman was called the "Bird Woman." 

119. John Randolph was one of the keenest and queerest men in 
the early days of the Republic. He was a descendant of Pocahontas. 
He was a leader of the Republicans in Congress, and was a warm friend 
of Jefferson at first. Randolph was opposed to the Embargo and 
bitterly objected to the War of 181 2. 

120. The declaration of war was carried by only five votes in the 
Senate and by thirty in the House. 

121. Tecumseh was probably the greatest Indian statesman. He 
had high ideas. He would not allow the massacre of prisoners and 
denounced those who did. He was a noble orator. He visited 
General Harrison at Vincennes and pleaded for his people and for 
their hunting grounds. He traveled over the eastern Mississippi 
Valley, trying to form a grand league of Indian tribes to destroy the 
whites. He opposed the retreat of the British from the Northwest 
Territory. He told his warriors that the battle of the Thames would 
be his last. 

122. Canada and the United States have given a fine example to 
warring Europe of over a century of peace. It might be wise for our 
students to look at our neighbor's history during this time. We can 
recall that the English won Canada from the French and that these 
Canadians, though they were French, refused to join the Americans 
in the Revolutionary War. We also saw thousands of well-to-do 
Americans driven to Canada during our Revolution. 

After the war English settlers began moving to Canada. They 
settled in "Upper Canada" along the Great Lakes. The French 
Canadians occupied "Lower Canada." Quebec was their leading 
city. These two districts were separate but had the same governor, 
appointed by the king of England. Each had a legislature of its own. 
But in those days Frenchmen and Englishmen did not get on well. 
They quarreled, and then came fighting. The English government 
made peace between them by uniting Upper and Lower Canada, New 
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia under the name of the Dominion of 
Canada (1867). Since then people from England, the Continent, and 
from America have rushed into Canada by the thousands, and other 
states have been added to the Dominion. Canada now extends from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific. When the great World War broke out, 
Canadian boys were among the first to rush to the front (1914) in 
defense of the motherland. Hundreds of Americans joined them. 

123. The new bank, created by the Republicans, is a good illus- 
tration of how war changes the minds of men. During the war the 
country had only state banks, and these got the money of the United 
States in a bad condition. The Republicans were wise enough to see 
the need of a United States bank to regulate the money of the country. 



490 THE APPENDIX 

124. The early settlers helped each other in many ways. Besides 
"log rollings," there were house and barn raisings, and in the fall corn 
huskings or "shuckings." These all called for the gathering of neigh- 
bors for miles around. At the end of the day the old folks went home, 
but the younger ones usually remained for "fun and frolic." 

125. Rumsey on the Potomac, Fitch on the Delaware, and Long- 
street on the Savannah had each invented a steamboat before Fulton 
did. But in a sense they were failures. In England, Fulton met 
Watt, inventor of the steam engine. He aided Watt in building an 
engine. He went to France and built a boat with an engine to make 
it go. The trials proved Fulton correct. He got his engine for the 
"Clermont" from Watt and Boulton. Fulton took the "Clermont" 
out of the river, covered her with a deck, built two cabins with 
berths, and changed her name to the "North River." 

It is interesting to note that Nicholas Roosevelt and other men in 
New York built a steamboat in 181 1 at Pittsburgh. Boats of a some- 
what different kind were soon put on the Great Lakes, and after the 
Erie Canal was finished one could travel from New York to northern 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin by water. 

126. Scarcely less important has been the effect of the canal on 
Lockport, Batavia, Oneida, Rome, Herkimer, Little Falls, Amsterdam, 
Cohoes, and Troy, to say nothing of other .enterprising places. New 
York voted $100,000,000 (1903) to make the canal into a "barge" 
canal and added $27,000,000 to this in 191 5. The canal was used by 
the national government to carry war freight to New York (191 8) and 
thus relieve the railroads. 

127. The greatest fun for the boys came when the mill pond was to 
be drained. Farmers made up small parties with seines from fifty to 
one hundred yards long. It was rare sport when some one had to 
draw his end of the seine through water over his head or when the 
alarmed bass jumped over the top of the seine and escaped. 

128. No American is better remembered in South America than 
Henry Clay. He worked hard, as secretary of state, to aid the South 
Americans in getting their independence. 

129. John Quincy Adams was brought up under the teachings of 
Washington and Jefferson that we should keep out of European quar- 
rels. He was a son of John Adams and had been to Europe to study. 
He had favored the Embargo and had opposed New England's attitude 
toward the War of 181 2. The Republicans took him up and sent him 
to help make the Treaty of Ghent. He returned and was appointed 
secretary of state by Monroe. 

130. One elector voted against Monroe because he wished Wash- 
ington to be the only president who received a unanimous vote for 
that high office. 

131. Another proof of the "era of good feeling" was that Adams 
and Jefferson had renewed their friendship and were once more engaged 
in exchanging friendly letters as of old. They both died just fifty 



THE APPENDIX 491 

years after independence had been declared — the one at Quincy, 
Massachusetts, July 4, 1826, the other at Monticello, Virginia, on the 
same day. 

132. The bank had been chartered in 181 6 for twenty years with a 
capital of $35,000,000. It had its branches in all the main cities. 
When Jackson made war on the bank, it went into politics, and tried 
to help elect Clay. This was a mistake, for it made many votes for 
Jackson. 

133- By i860, 4,000,000 foreign-born people had found homes in 
the United States. Only 400,000 of these were in the South, and more 
than half of that number were in Maryland and Missouri. 

134. One of the most distinguished sons of Germany driven to 
America for his part in the Revolution of 1848 was Carl Schurz. He 
escaped from a German prison and came- to America. He rose 
rapidly, was a warm friend of Lincoln's, and became a general in the 
Civil War. He was a member of the cabinet of President Hayes and 
became prominent as a civil service reformer. 

135- From 1845 to 1847 Ireland suffered a terrible famine because 
of the failure of her potato crop. Thousands died of starvation in 
spite of food shipped in from England and the United States. From 
1840 to i860 over 1,700,000 Irish migrated to America. 

136. Henry Barnard was made United States commissioner of 
education in 1867. 

137. In that day there was Httle room for women outside of the 
home. It was pointed out that this school was preparing young 
women to take their place in a proper manner as head of the family. 

138. The "jerks," a sort of nervous twitching of the body, some- 
times took hold of the head, and made its motions very rapid. Again 
persons fell upon the ground or made other strange motions, show- 
ing that they were deeply and strangely affected by the preaching. 
The "jerks" seemed to get hold of all classes of persons, even those 
who went to the meetings in a spirit of fun. It is interesting to note 
that a preacher in a southern city has in this day, November 15, 1919, 
complained to the police that persons so affected are breaking up his 
meetings by alarming others so that they leave the meetings. 

139. Cyrus H. McCormick lived in the Shenandoah Valley. His 
father had tried to invent a reaper, and the son kept at it until suc- 
cessful. His neighbors smiled at him for wasting his time. He built 
a shop in Cincinnati but finally located in Chicago, the center of wheat- 
growing on the prairies. Here there were no stumps in the wheat 
fields. He took his reaper to the World's Fair in London (1851). 
He kept on improving his machines, and today they are sold wherever 
wheat is grown. 

140. Howe, rather an exception, made himself well to do by the 
invention of the sewing machine. Since the first machine great changes 
have made the machine more perfect. Outside of the home, it is used 
for making all sorts of articles of cloth and leather. 



492 THE APPENDIX 

141. Morse was born in 1791. After finishing at Yale he went to 
England. As he came home the idea came to him of sending news by 
electricity. He worked hard on his invention, aided by two mechan- 
ics, Vail and Baxter. On three miles of wire, strung around his 
shop, Morse sent this message : "A patient waiter is no loser" (1838). 
They hastened the invention to Congress, for Morse was a poor man. 
Members of Congress made fun of the invention. He went home 
discouraged at ten o'clock, March 3, 1843. He had no money to pay 
his board bill. That very night Congress voted him money. 

142. The tariff of 1816 was favored and opposed by congressmen 
from all sections. The South gradually saw that the negro could not 
safely handle the machinery of a cotton mill. Besides, the planter 
had his money in slaves and lands and could not change easily to the 
business of running a factory. 

143. Calhoun and Clay taunted each other over the situation, each 
claiming the victory. Calhoun declared that he forced the central 
government to back down from its high protective tariff policy, of 
which Clay had been the great defender. Clay declared that he had 
saved Calhoun's neck from Jackson's halter. 

144. The Democrats had three vote-catching cries. For the South 
they called for the " reannexation of Texas." The United States had 
given Texas, then in dispute, to Spain when Monroe purchased Florida 
(181 9). For the North the cry was, "Fifty-four forty or fight." 
This was to be the northern boundary line of the Oregon region, but 
the Democrats accepted the line of 49°. This campaign cry was 
intended to raise the enthusiasm of northern voters. It succeeded, 
but the President did not carry out the threat of "Fifty-four forty 
or fight" and "All Oregon or none." The Whigs blamed Birney for 
the defeat of Clay. They insisted that the anti-slavery Whigs sup- 
ported Birney in the election in New York, thus giving that state 
to Polk. 

145. Abraham Lincoln, who had been in Congress bvit one term, 
introduced his famous "spot" resolution calling on President Polk 
to point out the "particular spot where American blood had been 
shed on American soil." Lincoln hoped by this resolution to call 
the attention of the country to the fact that the "spot" was in the 
disputed territory. 

146. So named from David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, 
who introduced the bill. 

147. New Yorkers were again blamed for the election. This time 
the Democrats blamed the Free-soil Democrats for voting for Martin 
Van Buren, thus giving the state to Taylor. 

148. President Taylor was a slaveholder, but it is said that Senator 
Seward was his chief advisor. Taylor took a soldier's view of the 
trouble the settlers in California were having with lawless persons, 
so he favored its admission as a state. He died in office and was 
succeeded by Vice-President Millard Fillmore of New York. 



THE APPENDIX 493 

149. Calhoun was an able man. Before the War of 181 2 even, he 
stood out as a great leader. Even now (1850) he was the leader of 
the states' rights party in the nation. He died in 1850. 

150. These routes ran from "Mason and Dixon's Line" through 
Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. 

151. A number of the rescues were most exciting. A Boston mob 
took "Shadrack," a negro, from the officers of the law. At Syracuse 
a crowd gathered and seized "Jerry" while he was being tried. Other 
men along the border made it a business to "hunt" slaves for the 
officers. 

152. Douglas declared that on his way from New York to Chicago 
he could read his newspaper by the light of his own burning effigy. 
The Missouri Compromise had stood for over thirty years. It was 
almost as sacred as the Constitution. To the North its repeal 
seemed like tearing up the foundations of the government itself. 

153. Lincoln had been preparing this speech for some time. He 
showed it to friends and asked their advice. " Don't put that in your 
speech," said his friends. "If you do, Douglas will beat you." Lin- 
coln replied: "I would rather be defeated with that in my speech 
than win with it out of my speech." 

Douglas had met and had defeated the best debaters in Congress. 
He told them, when asked about Lincoln, that he would rather meet 
any of them in debate than Lincoln. 

It was at Freeport, Illinois, where Lincoln, though opening and clos- 
ing the debate, put the fatal questions to Douglas. The night before, 
he had met Repubhcan leaders and had showed them the questions. 
Again they advised him against using them. "Douglas will surely 
win, if you do," they said. "I am gunning for bigger game. If 
Douglas answers as you say he will, he can never be president," he 
replied. 

After the debates were over he wrote to a friend: "I am glad I 
made the late race. It gave me a hearing on the great question of 
the age Though I now sink out of view and shall be for- 
gotten, I beheve I have made some marks which will tell for the cause 
of liberty long after I am gone." 

154. Lincoln had expressed the same idea in his "house-divided- 
against-itself " speech, but in milder terms. In the fall of the same 
year, at Rochester, Seward had declared that the two sections are 
engaged in an "irrepressible conflict " which must result in the country 
becoming all slave or all free. This gave offense to southern leaders. 

155. On Washington's birthday in Philadelphia, in the presence of 
a vast crowd, Lincoln raised the Stars and Stripes over Independence 
Hall. As he did so he said : " I have never had a feeling, pohtically, 
which did not spring from the Declaration of Independence." 

156. Shortly after the call for men Douglas, with Lincoln's knowl- 
edge, made a trip to the Middle West to stir the patriotism of that 
region. He spoke twice in Ohio and then hastened to Springfield, 



494 THE APPENDIX 

Lincoln's own town, and received a great ovation at the hands of the 
Repubhcan legislature. He made them a rousing union speech. 
He hastened to his own home, Chicago, and in the building where 
Lincoln had been nominated he made another patriotic speech. He 
was overworked and in a few days was dead. Lincoln and the Union 
lost a great champion. 

157. Robert E. Lee was a "Virginia cavalier" by birth, education, 
and character. His father was a famous cavalry officer in the Revolu- 
tion, " Light Horse Harry " Lee. Robert went to West Point, where he 
distinguished himself as a student. He won name and fame in the 
Mexican War. He was called to be the head of West Point, where he 
made many changes for the good of the school. He was a Union 
man and was opposed to secession, but, like many Southern men, felt 
he must go with his state. To the man Lincoln sent to offer him the 
command of the Union armies, Lee replied: "How can I take part 
against my relatives, my children, and my home?" 

158. In the battle of Bull Run, when it looked like a Federal vic- 
tory. Confederate General Lee called to his retreating men: "There 
stands Jackson Hke a stone wall." "Stonewall" Jackson, as his 
soldiers loved to call him, became, next to Lee, the greatest general 
of the Confederacy. 

159. General Johnston was a noble man. Just before he was shot 
he had sent his surgeon to care for wounded Union prisoners. Johnston 
bled to death before his surgeon returned. 

160. The simple faith of the northern farmer in Lincoln is seen in 
the remarks of one of them who came from the South, too. "The 
slaveholder now has no one to blame but himself. Did not ' Old Abe ' 
promise them that if they would come back into the Union they and 
their property would be protected?" 

161. Jackson was a poor boy and was raised by relatives. He 
walked to Washington to get his appointment to West Point. He 
was in the Mexican War and became a professor in a Virginia military 
school. He was a sternly religious man and, like Cromwell, prayed 
for success. 

His soldiers idolized him, although he drove them hard. He was a 
great general. Lee said when he heard of his death: "I have lost 
my right arm." 

162. Gettysburg was the place made immortal in 1864 by being 
dedicated as a national cemetery, and by being the place where 
Lincoln, before the great men of the nation, read his most famous writ- 
ing, "the Gettysburg Address." Just fifty years after the battle, and 
after both North and South had built many monuments to their dead, 
a great reunion of the Confederate and Union veterans was held on the 
Gettysburg battlefield. This reunion was proof to the world that the 
brave men who wore the Blue and the Gray were one. 

163. The most dangerous opponent of the war in Congress was one 
Vallandigham. He tried to prevent boys from joining the army and 



THE APPENDIX 495 

to induce them to desert when once they had enlisted. He was 
arrested and imprisoned. But Lincoln finally sent him, as a sort of 
logical joke, into the Confederacy, so that he might be with his friends. 
He escaped and finally got back home. 

164. One day a soldier was taking Lincoln through the hospitals. 
Lincoln talked with the men in the most friendly way about their 
condition, their homes, their mothers, wives, and sweethearts. When 
passing through the rooms the soldier said to Lincoln that he need 
not go into the next room since they were only rebels in there. Lincoln 
stopped, put a friendly hand upon the boy's shoulder, and said : "You 
mean Confederates!" The soldier says that he meant Confederates 
ever after. He could see no difference in Lincoln's treatment of the 
Blue and the Gray. 

165. Grant was born in Ohio and went to West Point, where his 
record was only fair. He was in the Mexican War. After the war he 
resigned and went into the real estate business, but failed. He went to 
Galena, Illinois, and went into business with his brother. When the 
Civil War broke out, the governor of Illinois "discovered " him and put 
him to training soldiers. To discipline a company, it is told that he 
made the men carry rails upon their shoulders for a long distance. At 
the capture of Fort Donelson he made his name famous by replying to 
the request for terms : ' ' Unconditional surrender. ' ' He was nicknamed 
"Unconditional Surrender " Grant. When meeting awful losses in the 
Wilderness, he sent this despatch to Washington: "I propose to fight 
it out on this line, if it takes all summer." After the war he was 
made president. After his second term he went around the world. 
His friends tried to make him president a third time, but Washington's 
example was too powerful. He wrote his Memoirs while battling 
against death. He lies buried in New York City in a spot overlooking 
the Hudson. 

166. Sherman was born in Ohio. He went to West Point. He was 
teaching in the South when secession came. He made himself unpopu- 
lar in the North by stating that the South meant to fight and fight 
hard. Grant and Sherman became warm friends. Sherman was 
probably the greatest strategist in the northern army. 

167. General Joseph E. Johnston was a brave man. He had been 
at West Point, in the Mexican War, and was head of the Confederates 
at Fair Oaks. Here he was wounded. He was helping Pemberton 
at Vicksburg. Johnston was given command in Bragg's place. He 
and Sherman played a great game at strategy, but Johnston had to 
retreat for lack of men. It is hard to understand why Davis should 
have removed him for following Lee's plan of fighting. 

168. Thomas, born in Virginia, did not "go with his state." He 
had been to West Point and in the Mexican War. He saved the day 
at Murfreesboro and at Chickamauga and stormed IMissionary Ridge 
for Grant. He was a bit slow, but sure. Thomas disturbed both 
Lincoln and Grant. Grant ordered his dismissal, but took it back. 



496 THE APPENDIX 

Thomas destroyed Hood's army. The plan of the battle of Franklin 
is said to be the only battle of the Civil War studied in European 
textbooks. His boys loved to call him "Pap" Thomas. 

1 69. The World War resulted differently. Not so many men died of 
disease, owing to new and better ways of taking care of drinking water, 
cooking, drainage of camps, and the curing of sickness. The work, 
too, of surgeons in caring for the wounded was not less miraculous. 

170. The invasion of Pennsylvania by Lee's army was in no sense 
a "raid," but was the regular movement of a great army. 

171. These were called "vagrant laws." They required all able- 
bodied negroes to work. But many were enjoying their "new-found 
liberty" too much to work. The South feared they would become 
idle and dangerous. If they refused to work they could be arrested 
and put to work for some white man. Their children could be "bound 
out" until a given age was reached. 

172. The bitter feeling aroused by this trial is hard for us to under- 
stand in this day. The few Republicans voting for Johnson were 
treated shamefully. Some were accused of being bought, others of 
being traitors to their party. Most of them were driven from their 
party. Very few were ever permitted to hold office again. 

173. Talking over old questions such as the doings of the Ku-Klux 
carne in campaign years. People opposed to discussing "southern 
outrages" called such discussions "waving the bloody shirt." 

174. Greeley was a most interesting figure. He gave rise to the 
saying, it is said: "Go West, young man, and grow up with the coun- 
try." The Tribune, of which he was editor, was a mighty force in 
bringing on the war. But Greeley had signed the bail bond of Jefferson 
Davis and was opposed to "congressional reconstrviction." In the 
campaign "everybody went to hear him, but nobody voted for him." 
The rejoicing of the Repubhcans at his defeat was hardly over when 
the news came that his defeat, joined to family sorrow, had sent him 
to his grave. 

175. About every twenty years this country has had hard times, or 
a "panic." Not all these have been equally hard. The years in 
which they have occurred were 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893. 

176. Tweed was, for a long time, the head of a body of politicians 
who could not be touched by public opinion, because it was said his 
supporters did not read the newspapers. But Thomas Nast, in 
Harper's Weekly, began to make pictures about them. Everybody 
could understand these pictures. The result was that Tweed was 
driven from power and finally put in prison. 

177. No little credit is due to Tilden, for he urged his followers to 
accept the decision and not to appeal to force, as had been threatened. 
This they did and settled down like good Americans to obey the laws, 
although every Democrat felt that Tilden had been "cheated out of 
the election." Congress and the country did not want any more dis- 
puted elections, so laws were passed to prevent such. 



THE APPENDIX 497 

178. One of the strongest arguments for the civil service was that 
the system of examinations had worked out well in Europe, especially 
in England. 

179. One danger from having more paper money in the country 
than gold was just this fact of high prices. It took more greenbacks 
to pay for a day's work or for a bushel of wheat or corn than it did 
gold. In other words, the rich man with his gold could buy more for 
a gold dollar than the poor man could buy with his greenbacks. 

180. Louisiana was a sugar-producing state and did not want to 
have to compete with sugar producers from other countries. 

181. This act was called "the crime of '73" by the silver people. 

182. During the debate in Congress one senator talked for fourteen 
hours against repeal. Nevertheless, the law was repealed. 

183. Dawson and Klondike City sprang into existence as the result 
of the gold rush. A traveler who visited Dawson in 1898 says that 
four loaves of bread sold for a dollar and that the newspapers cost 
fifty cents a copy. 

184. Copper, also, is mined in large quantities. Both hard and soft 
coal are found in Alaska. The government is building a railroad 
to the coal fields. 

185. Fifty-two foreign countries had exhibits. It was a real world's 
fair. The exhibits were grouped in fifteen classes, such as agriculture, 
mines, manufactures, electricity, and education. There were 158 
acres of buildings, some of them so big that the visitor felt lost in them. 
The largest was the Manufactures and Liberal Arts building that 
covered 30K acres. Dviring the time the fair was open there were 
27,500,000 admissions. 

186. The Democratic convention was held in Chicago. Bryan 
made a speech that won him the nomination. Speaking to the advo- 
cates of a gold standard, he said, "You shall not press down upon the 
brow of labor this crown of thorns ; you shall not crucify mankind upon 
a cross of gold." The speech became famous. 

187. The annual product rose from 5,000,000 ounces in 1886 to 
12,300,000 ounces in 1900. This met the demand of the Democrats 
for more money and took the strength out of the "free silver" argu- 
ment. 

188. Roosevelt, as a boy, had a weak body, but he made himself 
strong by outdoor life and exercise. He was an athlete, a great hunter, 
and an explorer. He wrote several interesting books about his trips. 

For a time Roosevelt lived as a ranchman in the West. He had 
many adventures with rough men and wild animals but was always 
able to take care of himself. 

189. The battle of Mukden was the greatest battle of the war. It 
was a victory for the Japanese. During this battle Marquis Oyama, 
commander-in-chief of the Japanese forces, directed the fighting on 
forty miles of front from a spot miles in the rear of the line. He did 
it by telephone. 



498 THE APPENDIX 

190. In 1906 Roosevelt received the Nobel Prize. This is a reward 
of $40,000 given to the person who does most during any year to bring 
about peace between nations. Roosevelt gave all of the money to 
good causes. 

191. An example of the wasting of natural resources is found in the 
way natural gas was allowed to flow unchecked for some years. In 
Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania people set fire to the escaping gas 
and let it biirn. At night, mile after mile of countryside was lighted 
up in this way. Today these same gas fields are nearly exhausted. 

192. The forest rangers are now aided in their work by regular 
airplane patrols over the forests. These watch for fires and report 
them to the fire-fighters. In 191 8 there were over 5000 fires in the' 
national parks. 

193. The Elephant Butte Dam on the Rio Grande in New Mexico 
is the largest government irrigation project. The dam is 305 feet 
high and 13 10 feet long. It forms a lake that covers 40,000 acres. It 
is capable of watering 183,000 acres of crops. Other great irrigation 
projects are the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona and the Shoshone Dam 
in Wyoming. 

Altogether about 15,000,000 acres have been reclaimed from the 
desert. This work is in charge of the Reclamation Service. 

194. President Taft later made a speech at Winona, Minnesota, in 
which he pronounced the Payne-Aldrich tariff "the best the country 
ever had." This was very offensive to the western Republicans who 
had opposed the bill. They took it to mean that Taft was trying to 
force them out of the party. 

195. After seeing Taft safely inaugurated, Roosevelt left for Africa 
on a hunting trip that lasted over a year. On his return he found Taft 
engaged in a quarrel with the progressive Republicans and the party 
threatened with a serious split. 

196. Elihu Root was chairman of the convention. Aided by the 
National Committee, he succeeded in keeping the Roosevelt delegates 
out of the convention. This system was called the "steam roller." 

197. Wilson had been president of Princeton University after being 
a teacher in the same institution. He wrote extensively on the govern- 
ment and history of the United States. As governor of New Jersey 
he secured progressive legislation. 

198. Many small high-power boats were engaged in the fihbustering 
trade with the Cuban insurgents. They would take on board a load 
of ammunition and arms in some port in Florida. Then on a dark 
night they would slip out of the harbor. The morning would find them 
off the Cuban coast unloading their precious cargo for the Cubans. 

199. In 191 1 the "Maine" was raised. The condition of the hull 
showed that the explosion came from the outside. Just who was 
responsible has never been determined. 

200. "Remember the Maine" became the battle-cry of the Ameri- 
cans. It makes us think of "Remember the Alamo." 



THE APPENDIX 499 

201. When the fleet was about two miles from the forts, Admiral 
Dewey turned to the captain of the ship and said quietly, "When you 
are ready, you may fire, Gridley." The reply was the thundering 
report of two long, eight-inch guns in the turrets of the "Olympia." 
The battle had begun. 

202. Leonard Wood had started army life as a surgeon. He won 
fame in capturing the savage Apache chief, Geronimo. From 1899 
to 1903 he was,military governor of Cuba. He began many reforms. 

203. The "Maria Teresa," badly cut up by shells and in flames 
from end to end, ran on shore. As the "Texas" passed the Spanish 
ship the American tars began to cheer. But Captain Philip, seeing 
the burning and drowning Spaniards, turned to his men and said: 
"Don't cheer. The poor devils are dying." 

204. The Panama railroad was built between 1850 and 1855. It 
earned big sums of money in its early days. The government now 
owns it. 

205. Roosevelt was criticized for recognizing the republic so 
quickly — he waited only three days. It was even charged by his 
opponents that he started the revolution and that he sent troops to 
help the revolutionists. 

206. Distances saved by the canal are as follows: San Francisco 
to New York, 7873 miles-; New York to Valparaiso, 3823 miles; San 
Francisco to Para, 5210 miles; Liverpool to San Francisco, 5465 miles. 

207. The famous Captain Cook discovered these islands in 1878 
and named them the Sandwich Islands. The first American mission- 
aries arrived in 1820. Some of the greatest volcanoes in the world 
are found here. The country was organized as a territory in 1900. 

208. This affair was the beginning of movements in China that have 
driven the old rulers from the throne. After much disturbance the 
Chinese Republic was proclaimed in 1910. Japan seems determined 
to get control of the country, but the United States stands for the 
"open door." 

209. The native children are being taught the English language in 
the schools. Over 600,000 children were in school in 191 7. 

210. In 191 2 Great Britain, United States, Russia, and Japan 
agreed to cut off seal hunting in the open sea for fifteen years. This 
was to give a chance for the seal herds to grow in numbers. 

211. Diaz gave Mexico peace and prosperity. His methods were 
so harsh, however, that there was constant danger of revolution. 

212. The meeting of the delegates was held at Niagara Falls. 

213. Henry Clay is regarded by South Americans as their greatest 
friend among American statesmen. In 181 7 he favored recognizing 
the independence of the South American states. When he was secre- 
tary of state under John Quincy Adams, he tried to bring about a close 
relation with South America. 

214. There have been six years since 1900 when more than a 
million immigrants arrived. In 1910 14.7 per cent of our population 



500 THE APPENDIX 

were foreign-born. In 1910 in nine American cities over half of the 
males of voting age were foreign-born. 

215. No naturalized person can become president or vice-president. 
Filipinos may be naturalized in two years after coming to the United 
States. Nine states allow the immigrant to vote if he declares his 
intention to become a citizen. 

216. In 1 916 there were 3157 strikes. Of these, 1031 were to get 
higher wages. 

217. Forty disputes were settled by the Erdman Act and sixty-one 
disputes by the Newlands Act. 

218. The Census says there are about 2,000,000 children between 
ten and fifteen years of age in the country who are engaged in gainful 
occupations. About one-fourth of them are working in factories. 

219. In the same year over 2600 coal miners were killed. In 1913 
over 2,000,000 workmen were injvired. 

220. In most states the injured workingman can receive as high as 
50 or 60 per cent of his weekly wage, but not more. 

221. Some states grant compensation for sickness caused by 
"occupational" diseases. These are diseases which come to workers 
in occupations like lead and brass working, or occupations that use 
wood alcohol, varnish, arsenic, or mercury. 

222. Some men who have brought about this result were Cornelius 
Vanderbilt, George Gould, James J. Hill, and E. H. Harriman. 

223. In some places voting machines are used. 

224. In most cities the city council has only one house or body. 
In a few there are an upper and a lower house. Usually, the number 
of members is from ten to twenty, but Philadelphia has 132 in her two 
houses. 

225. From 1911 to 1920 Mexico was overrun by bandits and 
desperadoes of all kinds. They murdered and robbed right and left, 
Mexicans as well as other people. It will be a long time before Mexico 
recovers from the effect of their evil deeds. 

226. The largest city is Charlotte Amalie on Saint Thomas. It has 
a fine harbor. 

227. French-Canadian fur traders made the first settlements. In 
1 810 Lord Selkirk built a fort near Pembina. One of the greatest gold 
mines in the world, the Homestake mine, is in the Black Hills. Gold 
was first discovered in this district in 1874 by one of Custer's soldiers. 
Gold hunters rushed into the region, and Indian troubles followed. 

228. Lewis and Clark were the first white men to visit this region. 
Idaho leads all other states in lead mining. 

229. Kit Carson, the famous scout and Indian fighter, lived in the 
old Mexican town of Taos. Dates for the founding of Santa Fe are 
given from 1582 to 1605. 

230. Sitting Bull was helped in this battle by the Cheyenne chief, 
Rain-in-the-Face, with 1000 warriors. Custer's body was the only 
one not disfigured by the Indians. 



THE APPENDIX Soi 

231. Kindergartens were first started in Germany by Froebel. 

232. Some high schools, hke those in New York City, have as many 
as 5000 pupils. In many high schools the pupils h^ve debating and 
literary societies, and football, baseball, and basket-ball teams. They 
also have bands and orchestras and run their own school papers. 
Many have fine gymnasiums, athletic fields, and swimming pools. 

233. In some states the principal of the rural high school lives near 
the school building in a house provided by the school district. He 
thus becomes a real member of the community and can act as a leader 
out of the school as well as in it. 

234. Samuel Hall opened the first normal school at Concord, Ver- 
mont, 1823. Massachusetts was the first state to start public normal 
schools. James G. Carter, Charles Brooks, and Horace Mann helped 
in the movement. 

235. In several middle western states like Minnesota, Illinois, and 
Wisconsin, the state universities have more than 5000 students each. 

Columbia University in New York City is the biggest university in 
America. In 191 7 it had over 17,000 students. 

236. Some of these colleges founded by churches are Denison Uni- 
versity in Ohio, DePauw University in Indiana, and Illinois College 
in Illinois. In the early days these colleges expected each student to 
work about half of each school day on a farm so as to earn his college 
education. This was a great help to poor boys. 

237. In 1910 not one per cent of workers on farms or in factories 
had any training in school for the work. It has been shown that girls 
with vocational training earn twice as much as those without training. 

238. Mark Twain was a Missouri boy. He never went to school 
very much, but worked in a printer's shop, learned to be a pilot on a 
Mississippi River steamboat, and tried his hand at gold mining. He 
traveled extensively and at last settled down to write books. As an 
author he was a very great success. 

239. Riley was an Indiana boy. Unhke Twain, he had a fair school 
education. For some years he roamed the Ohio Valley, earning his 
living as a sign painter. Later, he began to work on a newspaper and 
to write poetry. After a while he was ranked as one of our leading 
poets. The schoolboys and girls of Indiana celebrate "Riley Day" 
every year on his birthday, October 7. 

240. Eggleston also wrote historical works of much merit. 

241. Wisconsin is Hamlin Garland's home state. He taught school 
for a while and afterward became a lecturer. He has written both 
prose and poetry. 

242. Davis was a great traveler. Whenever a war was going on 
anywhere in the world, Davis was sure to be there. He was not fight- 
ing, but was reporting the war for big newspapers. He wrote some 
fine adventure stories. 

243. O. Henry (William Sydney Porter) was a North Carolina boy 
who spent some time on a Texas cattle ranch. He went to Central 



i?o2 THE APPENDIX 

America ^d became a banana grower, but failed in this business. 
He returned to the United States and began writing stories, finally- 
moving to New York City. He ranks very high as a short-story writer. 

244. Andrew Carnegie came to the United States from Scotland 
when he was ten years old, a poor immigrant boy. He began work 
in a cotton mill at 20 cents a day. His honesty, quickness, and devo- 
tion to duty led him from one position to another. He learned teleg- 
raphy and had charge of the eastern military railroads and telegraph 
lines during the Civil War. All this time he was saving his money. 
He brought the Bessemer process of steel-making to this country from 
England and began to make steel. He built up this business until the 
Carnegie Steel Company became the biggest in the country. In 1901 
he sold his interests and retired, one of the richest men in the world. 

Mr. Carnegie believed that he should use his great wealth to make 
the world a better place. So he gave away great sums of money 
to good causes. He gave money to help colleges and universities. He 
gave $10,000,000 to help on peace between nations; he founded many 
libraries. It is said that he gave away altogether over $300,000,000. 

245. In 191 8 cotton was exported to the value of $665,000,000 and 
meat to the value of $593,000,000. 

246. The value of the exported manufactured goods in 191 8 was 
over $3,500,000,000. 

247. South American merchants usually wanted long-time credit. 
They also wanted their imports packed in certain ways. The Ameri- 
can manufacturers did not pay much attention to these ideas of the 
South American buyers. The result was that many a South American 
merchant gave one order to some firm in the United States and after 
that gave his business to Germany or England, whose manufacturers 
were more accommodating and careful. 

248. All our coastwise and lake commerce is carried in American 
ships. It is the biggest coastwise commerce in the world. 

249. During the World War we had 341 shipyards building ships. 
Some of these ships were of wood, some of steel, and some of concrete. 

250. Every living thing has to fight against germs. Many dis- 
eases of people, such as tuberculosis, typhoid, and pneumonia, are 
caused by them. Among plants smut and rust, apple scab, and pear 
blight are germ diseases. Farm animals suffer from tuberculosis, 
tetanus, and cholera. 

251. The average value of the machinery on each farm of the coun- 
try is about $1,000. 

252. Elevators used to be built of wood, brick, or iron. Many 
are now made of concrete. The largest concrete grain elevator in the 
world belongs to the Armour Grain Company and is in Chicago. It 
can hold 4,383,000 bushels of wheat. 

253. There are three types of tenancy: (i) "cash tenancy," in which 
the renter agrees to pay a fixed sum per year; (2) "share tenancy," in 
which the renter turns over part of the crop to the owner; (3) " manager 



THE APPENDIX 503 

tenancy," in which the owner acts as a superintendent and directs the 
work of the tenant. 

254. One of the best things the Department of Agriculture is doing 
is getting the county agent system started. The county agent is a 
farm expert who advises the farmers about their work, teUing them 
how to use the best methods and helping them in their buying and 
selling. He helps them to organize agricultural clubs. 

255. Making the machines is itself a big business. There are about 
10,000 shops in the country making machines. The largest group is 
the one making farm machinery. 

256. Birmingham has grown up in the last thirty years. Iron and 
coal have made it. It is built partly upon the slope of a mountain 
of iron ore. 

257. Refrigerator cars were first used between Chicago and New 
York City. Ice is put in at each end of the car and a blower drives 
the cold air through the car. 

258. Special kinds of steel steamers are built to carry iron ore, coal, 
and grain. These boats carry about 80,000,000 tons of cargo through 
the "Soo" Canal in a year. This is several times as much as passes 
through the Suez Canal in the same time. The canal was opened in 
1855 and has been much enlarged since then. At lake ports like Toledo 
and Cleveland there are huge machines that pick up a whole freight 
car and dump its load of coal into the waiting ship. 

259. Other inventors and their inventions are Bell, the telephone; 
Goodyear, the welt machine for sewing soles on shoes; Robinson, block 
signals for railways; Brush, the arc electric light; Patterson, the cash 
register; Burroughs, the recording adding machine; Thomson, electric 
welding; Hardy, the disk plow; and Lewis, the machine gun. 

260. The " Lusitania " had left New York bound for England. She 
was sailing along the coast of Ireland. Her passengers were happy in 
the thought that they would soon see their loved ones and friends. 
Suddenly she was struck by a torpedo shot from a German submarine, 
then another, and the ship went down in twenty minutes with all on 
board, more than 1200. This was not war, but was pretty close to 
murder. The whole world shuddered at the news, but Germany 
struck medals in honor of the event. 

261. Theodore Roosevelt was one of the most active in demanding 
that America prepare for war. He had offered to take command of a 
volunteer force and go to France. But permission was refused him. 

262. The Kaiser was king of Prussia and emperor of Germany. 
He often dashed along the streets of Berlin on horseback- at the head 
of his soldiers, or rode with his wife in the royal carriage. People 
gathered in great crowds on both sides of the street to see him pass. 
When he came everybody raised his hat. If anyone failed to do this, 
a policeman might ask him to do so. The Kaiser's picture hung in a 
prominent place in every public school. 

263. One of the most interesting facts of the war was the great 



504 THE APPENDIX 

numbers of school boys and girls who took part in so many efforts 
to help win the war. They did noble service in helping raise money 
and in going, in great numbers, to aid the farmers. The girls were 
called "farmerettes." Those who remained at home, both old and 
young, added greatly to our food supplies by making gardens by the 
thousands. 

264. The German government carried on "propaganda" not only 
in America, but in Germany as well. It taught its own people to 
believe that Americans were only money-getters and would not fight. 
It said that it would take years for us to make an army; that even 
if we did, their submarines would never permit it to sail for Europe. 
But when a million men stormed the Argonne Forest and shattered the 
German line, the Germans felt their government had deceived them. 

265. When General Pershing heard General Foch had been appoint- 
ed over all forces fighting Germany he went to him and said: " Infantry, 
artillery, aviation, all that we have, are yours to dispose of as you will." 

266. Did you ever see the cartoon: "Go Tell It to the Marines"? 
So grateful were the French for the splendid work of our marines in 
capturing Belleau Wood, defended by three times as many Germans, 
that the French government changed its name to the "Wood of the 
Marine Brigade." ^ 

267. The stories of the deeds of bravery by the American soldiers 
make a page of history that will thrill the American boy and girl to 
the remotest time. Among these stories, none shows more of a simple 
courage and trusting confidence in a Higher Power than that story 
of Lieutenant York, a Tennessee mountaineer. In the Argonne, he 
was sent with a handful of men to capture a nest of machine guns. 
They crept through the tangled forest and over the rocks and hills 
until they reached the enemy without being seen. Then began a 
battle which tested the courage of the bravest. Nearly all York's 
comrades had fallen, but he kept on. With his automatic pistol he 
killed 25 men and captured 132 others. He destroyed several machine 
guns and marched his prisoners back to the American army. York 
did not seem to think he had done much. 

In this battle, an American battalion advanced so rapidly, that the 
Germans cut it off from the American army, but could not capture it. 
For three days this brave band, without food and water, stood their 
ground. They have become immortalized under the name of "The 
Lost Battalion." 

268. The Kaiser lost greatly in the estimation of his own people 
by deserting them in their hour of need. Had he led his army in one 
desperate charge against the Allies and had he died fighting, he would 
now stand much higher in the esteem of the German soldier. 

269. Before the war closed, the Quakers of America, true to the 
teachings of Fox and Penn, were already in the field helping to build 
up towns and villages in France. They were the first among the 
churches to take united action to aid France. Others have now gone 
in, and some of larger ones have been given certain villages to rebuild. 



STUDY QUESTIONS 

(1-26) I. Picture Western Europe in 1500. 2. What did the 
common man do for a -living? 3. How many and what classes were 
there then? 4. What changes in classes have been made since then? 
5. Picture the Northmen. 6. What were the causes of people turning 
attention to Western Europe? 7. What did Spain win in America 
in the race with Portugal? 8. Make a list of Spanish explorers with 
the countries visited, g. What new thing would Columbus have 
learned in 1522? 10. What did the king of France say about the 
pope's meridian? 11. What events grew out of the rivalry of England 
and Spain? 

(27-35) I. What natural advantages helped and what hindered 
the early settlers in America? 2. Explain how the Indians helped and 
hindered American settlers? 

(36-60) I. Why did English people at first hesitate to settle in 
America? 2. Why did they come later? 3. Give an imaginary con- 
versation between two Virginia settlers. 4. What events changed 
the whole life of the colony? 5. Name the things which made Vir- 
ginians content with their lot. 6. Who were the Puritans and Cava- 
liers? 7. What proof can yoti give that Berkeley had learned nothing 
from the rule of Cromwell? 8. How did Maryland as a colony differ 
from Virginia? 9. What became of Maryland's experiment in found- 
ing a medieval society? 10. Why should Maryland and Virginia 
have trouble? 1 1 . Make a list of the countries from which the settlers 
of Carolina came. 12. In what respect did the Carolinas resemble 
Maryland? 13. What double motive did Oglethorpe have for founding 
Georgia? 14. Name the three great men who came out to Georgia. 

(61-83) I- To what other colonies did Puritans go besides Massa- 
chusetts? 2. What is the difference between a Separatist and a 
Puritan? 3. What custom came to us from the Pilgrims? 4. Give 
the cause and the purpose of the Puritans' leaving England. 5. Name 
the causes which led Puritans to settle in towns. 6. How does this 
plan of settlement compare with that followed by the southern col- 
onies? 7. Classify leaders in New England as conservative and as 
progressive. 8. Which class comes nearest our time? What does 
this prove? 9. What have we already heard about the Puritan Revo- 
lution, or the Civil War in England? 10. What was the difference 
between the two revolutions in England? Which produced the 
greater changes in America? 11. What proprietary colonies have we 
already studied? 12. What other colonies were founded by the 
people themselves? 13. Name the leaders and state which of these 

505 



5o6 STUDY QUESTIONS 

colonies were democratic and which conservative? Where would you 
class the Plymouth colony and the Massachusetts Bay colony? 14. 
What became of the colony of New Haven? of Maine? of Plymouth? 

(84-106) I. What had the people of Holland done before they 
occupied New York? 2. Who were the patroons and what did Mary- 
land and the Carolinas have that was like the patroon system? 3. 
What were the reasons why New Netherland did not get self-govern- 
ment as soon as the other colonies? 4. Why did the Dutch settlers 
not fight when the English came to conquer New Netherland? 5. 
What things did the English do for the advantage and for the disad- 
vantage of the colony? 6. What first became of the colony of New 
Sweden? What was its fate finally? 7. Who first settled New Jer- 
sey, and how did it become English? 8. Draw a line between East 
and West Jersey. 9. Who occupied each part and how did the two 
parts finally become one? 10. Why did the people of New Jersey 
have no trouble with the Indians? 11. When did the Quakers first 
arise and who is called their father? 12. If a person obeys the inward 
voice, what will he believe and not believe? 13. Who was the most 
famous man among the Quakers? 14. In how many and in what 
ways did William Penn prove that he was a true Quaker? 15. Why 
was Penn's work in Pennsylvania called a "Holy Experiment"? 
16. Penn and the Indians? Penn and the settlers? 

(107-159) I. Make a list of European nations sending people to 
settle in America and indicate the nations sending most settlers. 2. 
What class of people did not come to America? 3. Name the impor- 
tant towns in colonial times. 4. Which colonies were most purely 
English? Where did the Dutch and Scotch-Irish settle? The Ger- 
mans? 5. Describe the first colonial houses and the furniture belong- 
ing to them. 6. Why did the log cabin and the blockhouse follow the 
frontier? 7. How did young people in different sections "pass the 
time away"? 8. How did a colonial schoolhouse differ from yours? 
9. Why were libraries so scarce then?. 10. Explain how the kinds of 
religion came to tolerate each other? 11. Why did they punish 
people publicly in colonial times? Why not now? 12. How did the 
farmer in old colony days differ from the farmer of Europe? 13. What 
occupations were common to all the sections? 14. What was the 
leading occupation in each section? 15. Why did the colonial farmer 
raise so little wheat? 16. Prove that the farmer was an independent 
man. Is he independent still? 17. Why was the small farmer a 
"jack of all trades"? 18. What other occupations did shipbuilding 
call for? 19. How did England look on colonial manufactures? 
20. What were smuggling and piracy? 21. Where did we get our 
present-day state, county, and town government? 

(160-177) I. Picture the Indian battle at Lake Champlain in 
1609. 2. Trace the routes of Johet and La Salle. 3. What was 
the Frenchman's plan for possessing New France? 4. What were 
the causes of King William and Queen Anne's wars? What did 



STUDY QUESTIONS 507 

England gain? 5. What were Englishmen and Frenchmen doing 
in America during the long peace? 6. Why did both France and 
England want the region about the mouth of the Ohio River? 7. 
Why was George Washington chosen for the trip to order the French 
out of this region? 8. What did the meeting at Albany try to do? 
9. What was another name for the French and Indian War and why 
so named? 10. What great Englishman planned England's vic- 
tories? II. Why did the Englishmen want to get Quebec and why 
did the colonists rejoice over their victory? 12. What was the 
meaning of the victory to England and to the colonists? 13. What 
had these great wars done for the colonies? 

(178-197) I. How did European nations treat their colonies? 
2. If England treated her colonies so well, why did she and the colo- 
nies begin to quarrel? 3. Prove that George III had German ideas 
about England and America. 4. Why did English statesmen oppos- 
ing him support the Americans? 5. Explain what the people in 
America and England did to defeat the Stamp Act. 6. Keep a list 
of great Whigs in England until the end of the Revolution. 7. Give 
an example of the way the committees of secret correspondence worked. 
8. Causes and effects of the Intolerable Act? 9. Visit the First 
Continental Congress and tell what you see there. 10. Why and 
by whom were the English Whigs kept posted on the Continental 
Congress? 11. What did the Whigs of England do to prevent war 
from breaking out? 12. Shut your eyes and tell the story of the fight at 
Lexington and Concord. 13. Picture the battle of Bunker Hill. 
Why did the British lose so many men? 14. Prove it is better to 
win a battle by strategy than by fighting. 

(198-239) I. Prove that George III caused the separation of 
the colonies from England. 2. Which side would you have taken? 
Are you sure? 3. What are the rights of man? Read the cause 
of separation named in the Declaration of Independence. 4. What 
did Europe think? 5. See note 8 for the most famous Tory. 6. 
What was our purpose before the Declaration? After it? 7. Prove 
that the British had good reasons for thinking the war over. 8. Pic- 
ture the battles of Trenton and Princeton. Make a list of the times 
Washington surprised the British. 9. Resolved that Washington 
was wise or unwise in following the method of Fabius. 10. What 
great men came to join the Americans now? 11. What good came 
out of Valley Forge? 12. What was the plan of Burgoyne? 13. Why 
was each part not carried out? 14. What great effect did it have 
in Europe? 15. Frankhn's work in France? 16. Effect on England 
of the treaty between France and America? 17. Beginnings of the 
American Navy — John Barry and Paul Jones? 18. Give the story 
of Boone, Robertson, and Clark. 19. Why did the British go south 
and what success did they have? 20. Tell the story of Marion and 
his men. 21. Name the three battles in the South before Cornwallis 
started north. 22. What were the reasons causing Washington to 



SoS STUDY QUESTIONS 

start for Yorktown? 23. Give the effects of Yorktown. 24. Give 
the story of the heroines of the Revolution. 

(240-267) I. How did the people make constitutions? What 
colonial examples did they have? 2. How did they make the Con- 
federation? What early examples did they have? 3. On what 
principle did they agree in making the Confederation? 4. Name the 
political and military defects of the Confederation, also the trade 
defects. 5. Why do people speak of the Ordinance of 1 787 as a famous 
document? 6. What events frightened some men into going to 
Philadelphia in 1787? 7. Prove John Fiske was right in calling 
this a "critical period." 8. What other such periods have we had 
in our history down to 1920? 9. Get acquainted with the great 
men in the Convention and see what each did. 10. What does it 
mean that they disobeyed orders? 11. What was the first great 
dispute in the Convention and how was it settled? 12. Do you 
agree with Washington's speech? 13. How did a state ratify the 
Constitution? 14. Who were opposed to ratification? 15. What 
was the Bill of Rights? Where did it come from? 16. Name the 
great departments of government under the Constitution and a Hst 
of powers granted to each. 17. How does the Supreme Court declare 
a law contsitutional or unconstitutional? 18. Read over the first 
ten amendments. 

(268-295) I. Name the states with a larger population today 
than the nation had in 1790. 2. In what way were we and in what 
ways were we not independent of Europe? 3. Effect of the war 
on education? On religion and morals? 4. What did people think 
about slavery in colonial times and in 1790? 5. What good effect 
did the war have on industry? 6. What two revolutions were there 
in Europe in the latter half of the eighteenth century? 7. How did 
Samuel Slater get his machinery to America? 8. Tell the effects 
of the cotton gin on the South and on the North. 9. Where was the 
"West" in 1790? Describe how people got there. 10. Where did 
they trade and why? What danger was there in this western trade? 
II. Where could men travel the fastest in 1790? Where now? 12. 
How did the makers of the Constitution intend the electors for presi- 
dent to vote? How do they vote now and why? 13. Make a con- 
tinuous picture of Washington's journey to New York. 14. Write 
short sketches of the men Washington appointed to office. 1 5. Explain 
the origin of political parties. Which of them correspond to parties 
of today? 16. What hard questions were raised by the French 
Revolution? 17. Compare Washington's position in 1793 with 
Wilson's position in 1914. 18. Have you read Washington's Fare- 
well Address? 19. Explain the X. Y. Z. affair. 20. Name the 
causes and effects of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. 21. 
Give a full account of the campaign and election of 1800. 

(296-311) I. Prove that all the criticisms of Jefferson were not 
true. What did he believe that we accept now? 2. Why was he 



STUDY QUESTIONS SoP 

so popular in his first term? Who was Albert Gallatin? 3. Causes 
and effects of the purchase of Louisiana? 4. How did the purchase 
show that both Jefferson and the Federalists were not consistent? 

5. What two ends were served by the Lewis and Clark expedition? 

6. Study the admission of early states and show between what years 
the people went west in greatest numbers. 7. Sketch Napoleon. 
Was he good, bad, cr both? 8. Whom would you have sided with, 
Napoleon or England? 9. Was the Embargo a success or a failure? 
10. What did Jefferson and Madison do to keep from war? Who were 
the "War Hawks"? 11. The inequality of the two nations in the war? 

(312-322) I. Why were Americans generally successful in the 
West and not in the East? 2. Picture the battle between the "Con- 
stitution" and the "Guerriere." 3. How do you explain our vic- 
tories on the sea? 4. Name two events in the war for both EngHsh- 
men and Americans to be ashamed of. 5. Why would the battle 
of New Orleans not now occur? 6. What was there awkward in the 
Hartford Convention for Federalists and Republicans? 7. Explain 
how the Embargo and the war stimulated home manufactures. 8. 
Explain the causes of the protective tariff of 18 16. Who favored 
and who opposed it? 9. What do a hundred years of peace between 
England and America mean? 

(323-364) I . Why did the people rush West after the War of 1 8 1 2 ? 
2. How did the farmers get on when first settUng in a new region? 
How did the wife furnish her table? 3. The cause for the call for inter- 
nal improvements. Who was the great champion of this movement 
for roads, canals, etc.? 4. Uses of the steamboat in that day? 5. 
What effect did the first steamboat from New Orleans to Louisville 
have? 6. Picture scenes on the Cumberland Road. 7. Locate lead- 
ing canals and show how the Erie Canal operated. 8. What became 
of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, begun in 1827? 9. What were the 
older states doing in this time? 10. How did their people divide over 
internal improvements and a protective tariff? 11. What new prob- 
lems did the new states introduce? 1 2. The cause and purpose of the 
Missouri Compromise? 13. Origin of Spain's trouble with her colo- 
nies? 14. Who were the heroes of South America? Who gave them 
sympathy? 15. What was the "Holy Alliance"? Who were the 
leading men opposed to the AHiance? 16. Cause, nature, and purpose 
of the Monroe Doctrine? 17. When has the United States asserted 
this doctrine? 18. When lately was it under discussion? 19. What 
was the "era of good feeling"? 20. Explain the changes that came 
to the common men since colonial days. 21. Account for the election 
of John Quincy Adams. 22. What were the strong points and the 
weak ones in Jackson's character? 23. What was the "Spoils Sys- 
tem"? What became of it? 24. Prove that Jackson was the fighting 
president. Who were the great men against him? 25. Causes and 
effects of the panic of 1837? 26. Picture the Log Cabin and Hard 
Cider Campaign (1840). 



510 STUDY QUESTIONS 

(365-400) I. Compare the United States in 1790 and i860. Com- 
pare North and South. 2. How do you explain the difference in popu- 
lation between the North and South? 3. Where did the Americans 
who moved west before 1820 settle? 4. Explain the nature of immi- 
gration 1 830-1 860. Where did the immigrants settle and why? 
5. Effect of new immigration on new states and on the balance of 
power between the North and the South? 6. Compare "home life 
and pastimes" on the frontier with those of colonial days and in 1790. 
7. What changes had come in the older states? 8. Indicate changes 
in common and in high schools and in colleges. 9. Leaders in educa- 
tion? 10. Early writers and the "children's poets"? 11. Newspapers 
and magazines. Which of these are yet alive? 12. What was the 
lyceum? Does it exist today? 13. The "circuit rider"? The camp 
meeting? 14. Improvement in moral reforms and in laboring condi- 
tions? 15. Origin of labor unions? 16. What was the cause of 
woman's movement and who were its leaders? 17. Why was the 
farmer a "conservative "? 18. What were the leading farm inventions 
in this period? 19. What caused the factories to grow rapidly? 
What changes came in them? 20. The inventions that gave women 
relief? 21. Why was Pennsylvania the great industrial state in this 
period? 22. Prove that Morse and Field were great heroes. 23. How 
did railroads grow in this period? 24. How long did it take ships in 
colonial days to get across the ocean? In 1850? 1920? Any shorter 
way of getting over? 25. Meaning of Perry's visit to Japan? 

(401-430) I. State the fundamental differences between the North 
and the South. 2. How was the South disappointed over the first 
protective tariff? 3. Picture the Webster-Hayne debate. 4. What 
was Jackson's position? 5. -Personalities in the debate on the "Force 
Bill" and the "Compromise Tariff"? 6. Position of the slave? 7. 
What was the demand of the Abolitionists? What did that mean for 
the slave? 8. What was Calhoun's position? 9. What was the posi- 
tion of the South? Of the North? 10. Battle over the right of peti- 
tion? II. Why could the Americans and the Mexicans not get on 
well together? 12. What did Sam Houston do for Texas? 13. How 
did it become a part of the United States? 14. Why did Polk win in 
the campaign of 1844? 15. What nations laid claim to Oregon 
country? 16. Describe a journey to the Oregon country. 17. Ex- 
plain how the settlers in Willamette region took the lead. 18. What 
were the "battle cries" over Oregon in the campaign of 1844? 19. 
Why did Polk take the line of 49°? 20. Real cause and results of the 
Mexican War? 21. Who opposed the war and why? 22. What was 
the Wilmot Proviso? 23. What was odd about the candidates in 
1848? 24. Who were the Free-Soilers? 25. How did we get posses- 
sion of California? What was the effect of the discovery of gold in 
that region? 26. Where did the majority of settlers come from and 
why? 27. How did they stand on the slave question? 28. Who was 
the author of the Compromise of 1850? 29. What different positions 



STUDY QUESTIONS 51 1 

did the great men take? 30. What was the " Underground Railroad "? 
"Personal Liberty Laws"? 

(431-452) I. Early career of Douglas? 2. How did Douglas kill 
the Whig Party and shatter the Democratic party? 3. Why was it 
easier for the North to send voters to Kansas than for the South? 
4. What was "popular" or "squatter" sovereignty? 5. How was 
Douglas treated by his own neighbors? 6. What did the two parties 
do in Kansas? The effect upon the country? 7. The campaign of 
1856 and what the result shows? 8. What was the Dred Scott deci- 
sion? How was it a double blow? 9. Early career of Lincoln? 10. 
What was the point to Lincoln's speech when he was nominated for the 
Senate? 11. Describe the "joint debate" and show what its effect 
was. 12. How did the debates help split the Democratic party at 
Charleston in i860? 13. Why was Lincoln elected in i860? 14. The 
patriotic conduct of Douglas? 15. Describe the different attempts at 
conciliation. Why was it not possible? 16. Reasons for and against 
Secession? 17. Why did the South think she could succeed? 

(453-485) I. Military problems of the war? 2. England's atti- 
tude toward North and South? 3. How did the "Monitor" save the 
blockade? Show how the blockade helped win the war. 4. Explain 
the different steps in the West taken by Union troops to the time of 
the fall of Vicksburg. 5. How did McClellan get his army to the 
"Peninsula"? 6. What was the total result of the campaign? 7. 
Who was General Pope and why did Lee win in the second battle of 
Bull Run? 8. What relation did this battle have to Lee's invasion 
of Maryland? 9. What bearing did the battle of Antietam have on 
results of the war? 10. What was the first purpose of the war? Did 
Lincoln change this purpose? 11. What did his enemies say? 12. 
What was the purpose of the first proclamation? 13. What connection 
did Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville have with Gettysburg? 
14. Would you have quit after Gettysburg if you had been General 
Lee? 15. What was the difference between "War Democrats" and 
' ' Peace Democrats " ? 16. Who were ' ' Copperheads " ? 17. What was 
the political situation during the campaign of 1864? 

(486-511) I. Name the war campaigns in 1864 and in 1865 and 
tell the results of each. 2. Tell the story of Lee's surrender. 3. How 
did Lincoln's assassination affect the fortunes of the South? 4. What 
were the different effects of the war on the Union and on the Con- 
federacy? 5. Why was the planter such a sufferer? 6. Who was 
secretary of the treasury and what did he do? Name other members 
of the cabinet. 

(512-521) I. What was Lincoln's plan of reconstruction? What 
great principle was it based on? 2. Why did Congress not like 
Johnson? 3. In what sense did the Thirteenth Amendment complete 
the work of emancipation? 4. How did Congress try to protect the 
negro? 5. What caused Congress to impeach President Johnson? 
6. State the main point in the congressional plan of reconstruction. 



512 STUDY QUESTIONS 

7. Did the congressional plan cause the "Carpetbag" rule in the 
South? Prove your answer. 8. What was the Ku-Klux Klan? 
What means did it use? Why was it suppressed? 9. What were 
the points to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments? 10. How 
do the people of the South feel toward them? 

(522-540) I. What kind of president did General Grant make? 
2. What do you know about Horace Greeley? 3. What caused the 
panic of 1873? 4. What effect did it have on Congress? 5. What 
new questions were coming up in the Hayes-Tilden campaign? 6. If 
you had been Tilden would you have given up so easily? Why? 
7. What did Hayes do for the South? Its effect on him and on the 
South. 8. Why were the farmers of the West dissatisfied with the 
big political parties? g. What did the Grangers accomphsh? 10. 
What did the Greenback party want? 11. What were the demands 
of the Populist party? 12. Why were the people dissatisfied with 
the Harrison administration? 13. Explain the panic of 1893. 14. 
State some effects of the panic. 15. Why did the Louisiana senators 
fight the Wilson tariff bill? 16. How can a bill become a law without 
the president's signature? 17. Why was an income tax law passed 
in 1893? 18. What is the effect of the Supreme Court declaring a 
law unconstitutional? 

(541-567) I. What reasons were given for the fall in prices from 
1873 to 1897? 2. What was "the crime of '73"? 3. What remedy 
did the farmers and silver miners of the West offer for low prices? 
4. What two silver purchase acts were passed? 5. Why was the pur- 
chase of silver stopped? 6. What is the most valuable product of 
Alaska? 7. What is the value of world's expositions? 8. What does 
the expression "free silver" mean? 9. What is "imperiahsm"? 10. 
In what campaign was it an issue? 11. Explain the failure of the 
"free silver" plan. 12. How much gold in a gold dollar? 13. What 
is meant by saying that the gold dollar is the standard? 14. Review 
Roosevelt's pohtical career before he became president. 15. Why 
did he oppose the trusts? 16. How did he help to bring about peace 
between Japan and Russia? 17. Why was Roosevelt so popular? 

18. What was the estimated wealth of the United States in 191 8? 

19. Name some natural resources. 20. Why have natural resources 
been wasted? 21. What was Roosevelt's plan regarding the forests 
of the West? 22. How did Taft help conservation? 23. Who looks 
after the forests? 24. Give some idea of how destructive forest fires 
are. 25. What is the object of irrigation? 26. Who looks after it? 
27. Compare the area of irrigated land in the United States to area 
of West Virginia. 28. Why was the country disappointed in the 
Payne-Aldrich Act? 29. If there is $167,000,000 deposited in the 
postal savings banks, how much interest does the government pay 
out each year? 30. How do parcel post rates compare with rates 
for first-class mail? 31. What were the "special interests"? 32. 
Explain the break between Taft and Roosevelt. 35. How was Taft 



STUDY QUESTIONS $13 

nominated? 34. What did the Progressive party demand? 35. Who 
dominated the Democratic convention at Baltimore? 36. Explain 
Wilson's victory. 

(568-599) I. Describe conditions in Cuba, before 1898. 2. What 
interest did Americans have in the struggle? 3. Describe the sink- 
ing of the "Maine." 4. What promise did the United States make 
when it declared war on Spain? 5. Describe the battle of Manila. 
6. Who were the "Rough Riders"? 7. Describe the exploit of Lieu- 
tenant Hobson. 8. How do you explain the defeat of the Spanish 
fleet? 9. State four provisions of the Treaty of Paris. 10. Show 
that the United States kept its promise. 11. In what ways is the 
United States related to Cuba now? 12. Give five results of the war. 
13. What does it mean to say our isolation is ended? 14. When did 
the demand for a canal at Panama arise? 15. Why were farmers 
and manufacturers in favor of it? 16. Why did the French fail? 
17. What did the trip of the "Oregon" have to do with building the 
canal? 18. How much did we pay for a strip of land for the canal? 
19. How did our men get rid of yellow fever? 20. When was the 
canal completed? 21. How long and how wide is the canal? 22. 
What are the locks for? 23. Give examples of distances saved by 
the canal. 24. Why were the Hawaiian Islands not annexed in 
1893? 25. Of what use is a coaHng station? 26. How did the United 
States get the island of Tutuila? 27. Explain the "Boxer" rebeUion. 
28. What was Hay's "Open door" pohcy? 29. Why does China 
regard the United States as her best friend? 30. Who was the leader 
of the Filipinos in their resistance to the Americans? 31. What 
steps have been taken to improve conditions in the Philippines? 
32. What is the United States trying to do in the Philippines? ^^. Is 
there any chance for them to secure independence? 34. Do you 
think they should be granted their independence now? Why? 35. 
What is international arbitration? 36. What reason can you give 
for using it? 37. Name four cases in which arbitration was used. 
38. What was the question in the seal fisheries case? The Alaskan 
boundary case? The Venezuela case? 39. How many times have 
England and the United States arbitrated their differences since 
1789? 40. What were the purposes of the Hague meetings? 41. 
Why did they not put an end to war? 42. What is the principal 
feature of the "wait-a-bit" treaties? 43. What was the cause of 
Venezuela's trouble in 1902? 44. Why does the United States have 
troops in Santo Domingo and Haiti? 45. Why was Diaz driven 
from Mexico? 46. How many presidents has Mexico had since 
Diaz? 47. Explain the interest of Americans in Mexico. 48. Why 
did neither Taft nor Wilson wish to send troops to Mexico? 49. What 
was the "A, B, C" intervention. 50. What new meaning is being 
given the Monroe Doctrine? 51. What is the feeling of the power- 
ful South American states toward the Monroe Doctrine? 52. What 
is a Pan-American congress? 53. How many have been held? 54. 

18 



514 STUDY QUESTIONS 

Of what use are they? 55. What is the Pan-American Union? 
56. What are its purposes? 

(600-630) I. When did immigration begin to increase rapidly? 
2. Why did not the immigrants go to the South? 3. Explain the 
increase of immigration after the Civil War. 4. What nations con- 
tributed to the settlement of the Northwest? 5. State the relation 
of railroads to immigration. 6. About when did the immigration 
from Central and Eastern Europe begin? 7. Where did these people 
settle? Why? 8. What effect did this immigration have on politics? 
9. Have you ever been in the foreign quarter in any big city? 10. 
Why did people want to keep the Chinese and Japanese out of the 
country? 11. What trouble does the Federal government have on 
this account? 12. What is it to be naturaUzed? 13. Describe the 
process. 14. Ought all foreigners be compelled to be naturalized? 
15. Why did the later groups of immigrants find it hard to become 
Americans? 16. What steps can be taken to Americanize our immi- 
grants? 17. How did the coming of the factories change the relations 
of employers and workers? 18. How did Van Buren win the support 
of the workers? ig. Explain the revival of the labor union movement 
after the Civil War. 20. Describe the organization of the American 
Federation of Labor. 21. About how many unionized men are there 
in the country? 22. What is collective bargaining? Why do union 
men believe in it? 23. Name an employers' organization. 24. What 
is picketing? 25. Give an example of time lest in strikes. 26. Give 
an example showing how hard it is to keep violence out of strikes. 
27. Does the public have any interest in strikes? 28. What was 
Roosevelt's attitude? 29. What part does the government take in 
strikes? 30. What is a boycott? 31. Why do the unions object to 
the injunction? 32. What points of the labor question did the Clayton 
Act cover? S3- What plan have the unions followed to get the support 
of the political parties? 34. What objections are there to child labor 
in factories? 35. What is the Children's Bureau to do? 36. What 
steps have been taken to make the workers safe? 37. Name some 
occupations that are dangerous to workers. 38. What reasons can 
you give in favor of workingmen's compensation acts? 39. Why 
should everybody be interested in preventing injury to workingmen? 
40. Why are some employers in favor of welfare work? 41. Why did 
men begin to organize trusts? 42. Tell of the growth of the trusts. 
43. What is the effect of the trusts on the small producers? 44. What 
did the railroads gain by combining? 45. Do you live near a branch 
of any great railroad system? If so, what system is it? 46. Why 
did the people feel angry over the growth of "big business "? 47. What 
was the object of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act? 48. Name two com- 
panies that were prosecuted. 49. What was the result? 50. What 
have we learned about "big business"? 

(631-654) I. Why did people begin holding nominating conven- 
tions? 2. Why did they begin holding primary elections? 3. Does 



STUDY QUESTIONS ' 515 

your state hold presidential preference primary elections? 4. Why 
was the old system of voting not a good one? 5. Wherein is the Aus- 
tralian system better? 6. Does your state use the short ballot? 7. 
Why did people take up the system of "direct legislation"? 8. Does 
your state use the initiative, the referendum, or the recall? 9. Why 
was the Seventeenth Amendment adopted? 10. Which is growing 
faster, city or rural population? 11. Why is the problem of city 
government a hard one? 12. What is a city charter? 13. Describe 
the ordinary city government. 14. Why did people complain of it? 
15. Where did the commission plan start? Describe it. 16.' Name 
six cities that use it. 17. Why are city managers hired? 18. What 
are they stipposed to do? 19. Name five cities that have city man- 
agers. 20. What is necessary to get good city government? 21. 
Where did Sociahsm start? 22. What objections do Socialists have 
to private ownership? 23. What would they do about it? 24. State 
some arguments for and against Socialism. 25. Why do the Socialists 
wish to get control of the American Federation of Labor? 26. When 
did the Socialist party cast its biggest vote? 27. In what way is a 
protective tariff different from a tariff for revenue "only? 28. Was 
the Underwood tariff a tariff for revenue only? 29. Why did Con- 
gress pass the Income Tax Law of 1913? 30. Why was the Federal 
Reserve Act passed? 3 1 . In what Federal Reserve district do you live? 
32. Why did the United States send an army to Mexico in 1916? 
1^:^. Should the United States conquer Mexico? Why? 34. Why did 
we buy the Virgin Islands? 

(655-687) I. Why was the mountain region the last to be settled? 
2. What was the object of the Homestead Act? 3. What was a 
"bonanza" farm? 4. What states owe their settlement largely to 
the Northern Pacific Railroad? 5. What national park is in Montana? 
6. Why did the fur companies struggle for the territory near the mouth 
of the Columbia? .7. Explain the large population of Washington 
when it was admitted to the Union. 8. Why did the Mormons go to 
Utah? 9. For what purpose was the Indian Territory set apart? 

10. Why were the white men so anxious to get into the Territory? 

11. What railroads opened up the Southwest to settlement? 12. Why 
did the Spaniards explore the territory of New Mexico and Arizona? 

13. Sum up the part of the railroads in the settlement of the West. 

14. What was the reason for the rapid growth of the cities after 1900? 

15. What ciualities did the frontier develop in its people? Why? 

16. Why is the West the home of reform? 17. What was the main 
cause of trouble between the white men and the Indians? 18. When 
did Congress begin moving the Indians beyond the Mississippi? 19. 
Tell of the death of Custer, 20. Why was reservation life not good 
for the Indians? 21. Was the Dawes Act an improvement? Why? 
22. What is the fact about the Indians dying out? 23. Why should 
people living in a country like ours be educated? 24. Why has edu- 
cation been backward in the South ? 25. Why is the elementary school 



5i6 STUDY QUESTIONS 

very important? 26. What per cent of the children starting to school 
have dropped out by the end of the sixth grade? 27. Why do they 
drop out? 28. What new subjects have been added to the course of 
study? 29. What per cent has attendance in high schools in- 
creased since 1880? 30. Is there a good high school in your neighbor- 
hood? 3 1 . State two big changes in high schools since 1880. 32. Why 
should a teacher be trained for her work? ^^. What did the Morrill 
Act do for education? 34. What can a student study at the state 
university? 35. Why were vocational subjects added to the course 
of study? 36. What practical subjects can boys and girls study in 
vocational schools? 37. Do you think parents should be compelled 
to send their children to school? Why? 38. Why were night schools 
started? 39. What is meant by saying a school is a "community 
center"? 40. Do you have a community center in your neighbor- 
hood? 41. What good has been done by medical inspection in schools? 
42. Do you think women need higher education as much as men? 
Why? 43. Do you know of any college or university that does not 
admit women? 44. Will giving women the right to vote have any 
effect on this situation? 45. Name something that "Mark Twain" 
wrote besides the books mentioned in the text. 46. Try to find the 
poem Columbus and read it. 47. Name three southern writers. 48. 
Have you read any of Riley's poems? Which do you like best? 49. 
Who wrote the Hoosier School Boy? 50. Name three short-story 
writers and two novelists. 51. Do you read a daily newspaper? A 
periodical? 52. Name three current events magazines. 53. Does 
your school take one? 54. Is there a free public library near you? 
55. Does your school have a library? 56. Of what use is it? What 
kind of books does it contain? 57. What great gift did Mr. Carnegie 
make the American people? 

(688-729) I. What are exports? Imports? 2. Why do nations 
exchange goods? 3. What advantages do our farmers enjoy? 4. 
Show how our export of farm products has grown since 1 880. 5. What 
are our largest agricultural exports? 6. Why do we not export corn 
in large quantities? 7. Explain the growth in manufactured exports 
since 1880. Is this a good thing for us? 8. Why is Europe our best 
customer? 9. Why does not England produce all the farm products 
she wants? 10. Why must a nation import goods if it wants an 
export business? 11. Is it a bad thing to import goods? 12. What 
are the principle articles imported by the United States? 13. What 
is a "favorable" balance of trade? 14. Why did the United States 
have only a small export trade to South America until a few years 
ago? 15. What does "reciprocity" mean? 16. What relation does 
the Panama Canal have to trade with South America? 17. Why are 
Americans getting more business in South America than they used to 
have? 18. What countries of South America are our best customers? 
19. What is the merchant marine? 20. Do you favor a subsidy for 
the merchant marine? Why? 21. What part of the world's wealth 



STUDY QUESTIONS 517 

do we produce each year? 22. How has wealth grown in comparison 
to population? 23. Give reasons for the rapid growth of wealth. 
24. Do you think it pays the country to keep up the universities and 
agricultural colleges? Why? 25. Of what use are the scientists? 
26. Give illustrations. 27. Why is machinery used on the farm? 
28. How has the use of machinery on farms increased? 29. In what 
sense is the farmer dependent upon the means of transportation? 
30. What does it cost to send wheat from Kansas to Liverpool? 31. 
Illustrate how extending transportation affects ether industries by 
the case of dairy farming. 32. Why did the farmers begin running 
grain elevators for themselves? ^t,. What state has gone into the 
business? 34. Could we get along as well today without cold storage 
plants? 35. Mention several respects in which the farmer's life has 
recently changed. 36. What is the effect of these changes upon 
continued improvement? 37. Show that farm tenancy is growing. 
38. Is this a good thing? Why? 39. What were the reasons for 
starting land banks? 40. Do you think it pays the country to keep 
up the Department of Agriculture? Why? 41. How does the num- 
ber of people engaged in agriculture compare with the number in 
manufacturing? 42. Give six main reasons for the development of 
manufacturing. 43. How many classes of manufactured goods does 
the Census make? (See appendix.) 44. In what ways does manu- 
facturing make use of science? 45. Give examples of direct produc- 
tion. 46. Give examples of indirect production. 47. Which is better? 
Why? 48. Give examples of division of labor. 49. Why do the 
factories work on this plan? 50. Why are machines important in 
production? 51. What factors control the location of factories? 
52. How do the states rank in manufacturing? 53. Illustrate the 
growth of the South in manufacturing. 54. Why was it slow getting 
started? 55. Give some illustrations of how industries are localized in 
certain cities. 56. How do the industries rank according to numbers 
of workers? 57. How according to value of output? (See appendix.) 
58. Name ten manufacturing cities according to their rank. 59. 
What are by-products? 60. Give an illustration of how science has 
shown how to use them. 61. What city leads in meat packing? 
62. Of what use is the refrigerator car? 63. Why is the iron industry 
centered in the Pittsburgh district? 64. What other iron districts 
have been developed? 65. Why was the cotton manufacturing 
industry first developed in New England? 66. Why was it slow to 
develop in the South? 67. How do the states rank in cotton manu- 
facture? 68. What was the industrial revolution? 69. Why does 
the inventor go to work? Give two illustrations. 70. Why does 
invention not stop when a machine has been invented? 71. When 
was the first patent law passed? 72. Do you think it a wise thing 
for the government to issue patents? Why? 73. Give some figures 
indicating the great number of patents issued in the United States. 
74. Name ten inventions not listed in the text. 



Si8 STUDY QUESTIONS 

(730-772) I. What do you think was the real cause of the World 
War? 2. Imagine yourself in Wilson's place between 1914 and 191 7. 
Tell what problems he had to face. 3. State the immediate cause of 
war. 4. Why had so many Americans gone to war before war was 
declared by this country? 5. Make a list of the ways people at home 
helped win the war. 6. Make a list of war organizations at home. 
7. Make a list of warships. 8. Make a list of what the soldier saw 
and did before he went to France? 9. Why were Americans rushed 
to France before entirely prepared to fight? 10. What was done to 
overcome this defect? 11. How long had the Allies been fighting 
when American soldiers entered the war? 12. Which was the great- 
est battle for the Americans? 13. What connection was there between 
the work of the English and American navies and the Armistice? 
14. State the points imposed on Germany by the Armistice. 15. 
What great social changes were brought about by the war. 16. Give 
a brief account of the religious changes due to the war. 17. How do 
you account for the Harding election? 



THE APPENDIX 519 



THE "MAYFLOWER" COMPACT 

2.n ye name of God, Amen. We whose names are writen, the loyall 
subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of God, 
of Great Britaine, Franc, & Ireland, king, defender of ye faith, &c., 
haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God, and advancemente of ye 
Christian faith, and honour of our king & countrie, a voyage to plant 
ye first colonic in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents 
solemnly & rnutualy in ye presence of God, and one of another, cove- 
nant & combine our selves togeather into a civill body politick, for our 
better ordering & preservation & furtherance of ye ends aforesaid : and 
by vertue hearof to enacte, constitute, and frame such just & equall 
lawes, ordinances, actes, constitutions, & offices, from time to time, as 
shall be thought most meete & convenient for ye generall good of ye 
Colonic, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In 
witnes wherof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape-Cod ye 
II. of November, in the year of ye raigne of our soveraigne lord. King 
James, of England, France & Ireland ye i8, and of Scotland ye fiftie- 
fourth. Ano, Dom. 1620. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE' 

In Congress, yuly 4, 1776. 

The following declaration of principles was agreed to on July 4, 1776, 
and is thus recorded in the Journal of Congress for that day : 

Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into 
a committee of the whole to take into their further consideration the 
Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and 
Mr. Harrison reported that the committee have agreed to a Declaration, 
which they desired him to report. The Declaration being read, was 
agreed to as follows : 
The Unanimous Declaration ok the Thirteen United States of 
America 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 
them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; 
that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is 
the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new 
government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its 
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 

iThe use of capitals, the punctuation, the paragraphing, and the numbering of 
paragraphs are all modern. In the original draft the use of capitals and punctuation 
marks was quite different and there was no division into paragraphs. 



S20 - THE APPENDIX 

safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments 
long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; 
and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more 
disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves 
by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long 
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them 
to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present 
king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, 
all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

/. He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and 
necessary for the public good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 
should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people unless those people would relinquish the right 
of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

_ 5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of anni- 
hilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state 
remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasions 
from without and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; 
for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

S. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure 
eir offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

//. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. 

/J. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our Constitution and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

a. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. 

b. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment, for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states. 



THE APPENDIX 521 

c. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. 

d. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. 

e. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury. 
/. For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 

offenses. 

g. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies. 

h. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments. 

i. For suspending our own legislature and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

14. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

75-. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

lb. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercena- 
ries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in 
the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized 
nation. 

77. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the execution- 
ers of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

18. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless 
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 
We have warned them from time to time, of attempts by their legisla- 
ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have 
conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these 
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and cor- 
respondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of 
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which 
denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- 
kind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, 
in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British crown, and that all political connection between them and the 
state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that as 
free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and 



522 



THE APPENDIX 



things which independent states may of right do. And for the support 
of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine 
Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and 
signed by the following members : 



New Hampshire 
Josiah Bartlett 
William Whipple 
Matthew Thornton 




Massachusetts Bay 
Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 

Rhode Island 
Stephen Hopkins 
William Ellery 

Connecticut 
Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
William Williams 
Oliver Olcott 

New York 
William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 



New Jersey 
Richard Stockton 
John Witherspoon 
Francis Hopkinson 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

Pen7isylva7iia 
Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Clymer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

Delaware 
Caesar Rodney 
George Read 
Thomas M'Kean 

Maryland 
Samuel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 
Charles Carroll of Car. 
rollton 



Virginia 
George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harrison 
Thomas Nelson, Jun. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 

North Carolina 
William Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

South Carolina 
Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Hey ward, Jun. 
Thomas Lynch, Jun. 
Arthur Middleton 

Georgia 
Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 




THE APPENDIX 



523 



PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION 



Some steps toward fed- 
eration, resulting in the 
Constitution: 



With regard 
to the United 
States Govern- 
ment the Consti- 
tution provides 
for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the House of 
Representa- 
tives, the Con- 
stitution pro- 
vides for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the Senate, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



With regard 
to the President, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



■ The New England Confederacy (1643). 
The Albany Plan (1754). 
The Stamp Act Congress (1765). 
The Committees of Correspondence (1773). 
The First Continental Congress (1774). 
The Declaration of Independence (1776). 
Articles of Confederation Adopted (1781). 
Convention at Annapolis (1786). 
Constitutional Convention (1787). 



Legislative Department. 
Executive Department. 
Judicial Department. 



House of Representatives'- 

Senate. 

President. 

President's Cabinet. 

Federal Judges. 

Federal Courts. 



Manner of election. By the people of the several states. 
Two years. 

(Twenty-five years old. 
Seven years a citizen of the 
United States. 
Live in state where chosen. 
/ Among the states according to the 
\ number of inhabitants. 



Term of office. 



Qualifications. 



Distribution. 
The census. 



Every ten years. 
A presiding officer. Members elect the Speaker. 
Power to impeach Federal officers. 

Number. Two from each state. 

Manner of election. By the state legislatures.^ 
Term of office. Six years. 

(Thirty years of age. 
Nine years a citizen of the United 
States. 
Live in state where elected. 
(Vice-President of United States. 
In absence of Vice-President Sen- 
ate elects president pro tern. 
Their acting as court to try impeachments brought by 
the House of Representatives. 



Qualifications. 



Term of office. 
Manner of election . 

Qualifications. 

Oath of office. 



Four years. 
' By presidential electors chosen by 

the people of the several states. 
Natural-born citizen of the United 

States. 
Thirty-five years of age. 
Fourteen years' residence in 

United States. 
■ To support the Constitution of the 
\ United States. 



1 Amendments, Article XVII. 



524 



THE APPENDIX 



With regard to the rT't,^,v „„„^;„f^^„.„ f By President with the 
Federal Judges, the J ^^^'^ appointments. | i^onsent of the Senate. 



Constitution provides ] Their number. 

for : i_ Their term of office. 



Fixed by Congress. 
During good behavior. 



The Constitution f One Supreme Court, 
provides for Federal -i 
courts: (^ Inferior courts to be established by Congress. 



The Constitution 
provides for Congress : 



Congress ^ 
has power .• 



The Presi- 
dent's powers: 



The Presi- 
dent's duties : 



Time of meeting. { ^Sfiy^rol'dmber. 

Quorum, Majority. 

Each house determine its rules of procedure. 
Each house keep a journal. 

Neither house may adjourn for more than three 
days without the consent of the other. 
. The method of passing laws. 

To lay taxes.l 

To borrow money. 

To regulate commerce. 

To pass laws to regulate {^^^ji'^-^- o£ foreigners. 

To coin money. 

To fix standard of weights and measures. 
To establish post offices. 
To provide for patents and copyrights. 
To declare war. 
To raise and support armies. 
To maintain a navy. 
To provide for a standing army. 
To admit new states. 

To pass laws necessary to carrying out the above 
powers. 

r Army. 
J Navy. 

j Militia in service of the 
t United States. 
Grants reprieves and pardons. 

{Makes treaties. 
Appoints i ^^Z^S 
L Federal Judges. 

Send messages to Congress. 

Convene extra sessions of Congress when necessary. 

Receive ambassadors. 

Execute the laws. 



Commander-in-chief of : 



1 Amendments, Article XVI. 



THE APPENDIX 525 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES^ 

PREAMBLE 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

THE CONGRESS: ITS DIVISIONS AND POWERS 

Section i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

THE house: its COMPOSITION AND POWERS 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- 
bers chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and 
the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for elec- 
tors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state 
in which he shall be chosen. 

(Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned amorig the 
several states which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons.) The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law 
direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; 
and until such enumeration shall be made the state of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; 
New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; 
Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, 
three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
oflScers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

THE senate: its COMPOSITION AND POWERS 

Sec 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
senators from each state [chosen by the legislature thereof 2], for six years; 
and each senator shall have one vote. 



1 In the use of punctuation and capitals this draft is modern. 

2 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 



526 THE APPENDIX 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- 
tion of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the 
fourth year; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies hap- 
pen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of 
any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall fill such vacancies.^] 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age 
of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and 
who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he 
shall be chosen. 

The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments; when 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; 
and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds 
of the members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted 
shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment according to law. 

CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS AND DATE OF ASSEMBLING 
Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for sena- 
tors and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature 
thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a different day. 

RULES OF PROCEDURE OF SENATE AND HOUSE 

Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- 
tute a quorum to do business; -but a smaller number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may 
provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
thirds, expel a member. 

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house 
on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered 
on the journal. 

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 

1 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 



THE APPENDIX 527 

consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

COMPENSATION AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS 

Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compen- 
sationi for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, 
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any 
office under the United States shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

methods of legislation 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the Presi- 
dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he 
shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, a-nd 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that 
house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- 
tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all 
such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be 
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be 
returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of 
the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and 
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

powers vested IN CONGRESS 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power: 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts 
and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United 
States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout 
the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

1 Seven thousand five hundred dollars a year, and twenty cents for every mile 
necessary traveled in coming to and returning from the Capital. 



528 THE APPENDIX 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several 
states, and with the Indian tribes ; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on 
the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

To establish post offices and post roads ; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for 
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 

To declare war, "grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
concerning captures on land and water ; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of 
the United States, reserving to the states, respectively, the appointment 
of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the 
discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places 
purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the 
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, 
and other needful buildings; and — 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- 
ment or officer thereof. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in case of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 



THE APPENDIX 5^9 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels 
bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence 
of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of 
the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States. And no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the 
consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or 
title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE STATES 

Sec. io. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- 
tion ; grant lettejs of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of 
credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and 
imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the Congress. 

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
nage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agree- 
ment or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage 
in war, unless actually invaded, oi in such imminent danger as will not 
admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

THE EXECUTIVE OFFICERS ; THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE 

Section i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and, together with, the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected, as follows : 

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress ; 
but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

[The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons 
voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of 
the United States, directed to the pi'esident of the Senate. The presi- 
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and 



530 THE APPENDIX 

have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
house shall, in hke manner, choose the President. But in choosing 
the President the votes shall be taken by states, the representation 
from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority 
of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the 
choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes 
of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain 
two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by 
ballot the Vice-President.'] 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress 
may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- 
bility, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation* which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and 
will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Consti- 
tution of the United States." 

POWERS GRANTED TO THE PRESIDENT 

Sec. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when 
called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the 
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive 
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present 
concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 
States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 

1 The paragraph in brackets has been set aside by the Xllth Amendment. 
2 The President receives Its.ooo a year, and $25,000 additional for traveling ex- 
penses; the Vice-President receives Ji2,ooo a year. 



THE APPENDIX S3 1 

which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest 
the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the 
President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall 
expire at the end of their next session. 

THE president's DUTIES 

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraor- 
dinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case 
of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of 
the United States. 

IMPEACHMENT OF EXECUTIVE AND CIVIL OFFICERS 

Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and 
conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

THE FEDERAL COURTS — SUPREME AND INFERIOR 

Section i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

POWERS AND JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

Sec 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all 
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which 
the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more 
states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens 
of different states ; between citizens of the same state claiming lands 
under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- 
suls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall 
have been committed ; but when not committed within any state, the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 



532 THE APPENDIX 

TREASON : ITS NATURE AND PUNISHMENT 

Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, 
except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 
RELATIONS OF THE STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS 

RECOGNITION OF STATE AUTHORITY 

Section i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to 
the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. 
And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

LAWS REGARDING CITIZENS OF THE STATES 

Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges 
and immunities of citizens in the several states. 

A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on 
demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be 
delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation 
therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered 
up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

ADMISSION OF STATES AND REGULATION OF UNITED STATES TERRITORIES 

Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
tion of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two 
or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures 
of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- 
strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any partic- 
ular state. 

PROTECTION GUARANTEED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the Execu- 
tive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

POWER AND METHOD OF AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION 

The Congress, whenever Iwo-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall 



THE APPENDIX 533 

call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

PUBLIC DEBTS; THE SUPREME LAW; OATH OF OFFICE ; 
RELIGIOUS TEST PROHIBITED 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adop- 
tion of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution as under the confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by 
oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test 
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States, 

ARTICLE VII 

RATIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient 

for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying 

the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 
seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 
United States of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, 



Deputy from Virginix 

New Hampshire 
John Langdon Connecticut 

Nicholas Oilman "William Samuel Johnson 

Massachusetts ^^^^^ Sherman 
Nathaniel Gorham ^^^^ ^'^^^ 

Rufus King Alexander Hamilton 



534 THE APPENDIX 

New Jersey Maryland 

William Livingston J^mes McHenry 

David Brearley Daniel Jenifer of St. Thomas 



William Paterson 



Daniel Carroll 



Jonathan Dayton Virginia 

Pennsylvania John Blair 

■D . . ^ IV James Madison, Jun. 

Beniamin rrankun •' ,t , Vi ,• 

Thomas Mifflin _.„. E"'^^' Carolina 



Robert Morris 



William Blount 



George Clymer Richard Dobbs Speight 

Thomas Fitzsimons Hugh Williamson 
Jared Ingersoll South Carolina 

James Wilson John Rutledge 

Gouverneur Morris Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 

Delaware Charles Pinckney 

George Read Pierce Butler _ 

Gunning Bedford, Jun. „,.„. Georgia 

John Dickinson ^'f"" ^?.^. • 

Richard Bassett Abraham Baldwin 

Jacob Broom Attest: William Jackson, Secretary 

AMENDMENTS 

Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the 
United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the 
legislatures of the several states pursuant of the fifth article of the orig- 
inal Constitution. ARTICLE I' 

FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND SPEECH ; RIGHT OF ASSEMBLY 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peace'ably to assemble, 
and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 

RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people fo keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. ARTICLE III 

QUARTERING OF TROOPS 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war but in a manner to be pre- 
scribed by law. ARTICLE IV 

RIGHT OF SEARCH PROHIBITED 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 

1 The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and adopted before the close 
of 1791. They were to "more efficiently guard certain rights already provided for 
in the Constitution, or to prohibit certain exercises of authority supposed to be 
dangerous to the public interests." 



THE APPENDIX • 535 

violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 

RIGHT TO TRIAL BY JURY 
No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infa- 
mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life and limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a wit- 
ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- 
out due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public 
use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 

RIGHTS OF ACCUSED IN CRIMINAL CASES 
In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII 

SUITS AT COMMON LAW 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United 
States than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

BAIL AND FINES 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 

MODIFICATION OF ENUMERATED RIGHTS 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X 

POWERS RESERVED TO STATES AND THE PEOPLE 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, 
or to the people. ARTICLE XI > 

LIMITATION TO POWER OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

1 Adopted in 1798. 



536 • THE APPENDIX 

ARTICLE XII' 

NEW ELECTORAL LAW 

The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the 
person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of 
all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- 
President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government ot 
the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the President 
of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; 
the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be 
the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the 
persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of 
those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose 
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, 
the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state 
having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states 
shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives 
shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve 
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President.. The person havmg the 
greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number ot electors appointed ; 
and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers 
on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for the 
purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and 
a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But 
no person constitutionally ineligible to the oflfice of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

. ARTICLE XIIP 

ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 

SLAVERY AND INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE PROHIBITED 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to then- 
jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 3 

NEW LAWS MADE NECESSARY BY THE CIVIL WAR 

QUALIFICATIONS FOR CITIZENSHIP 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce 

1 Adopted in 1804. 2 Adopted in 1865. 3 Adopted in 1868. 



THE APPENDIX 537 

any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of 
the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several states 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the execu- 
tive or judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, 
is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one 
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of repre- 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such state. 

DISABILITY FOR BREAKING OATH OF OFFICE 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, 
or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
tary, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previ- 
ously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or 
judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United 
States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, 
or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, 
by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

THE PUBLIC DEBT 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- 
tioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation 
of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

Sec 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- 
lation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XVI 

RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE 

RIGHT GUARANTEED TO ALL CITIZENS 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

1 Adopted in 1870. 



538 THE APPENDIX 

ARTICLE XVII 

INCOME TAX 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several 
states and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII 1 
DIRECT ELECTION OF SENATORS 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
from each state, elected by the people thereof for six years; and each 
senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
state legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the 
senate, the executive authority of each state shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies; Provided, That the legislature of any state may 
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIII 2 

PROHIBITION 

Section i. After one year from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with the 
importation thereof, or exportation thereof from the United States and 
all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes is 
hereby prohibited. 

Sec. 2. The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the constitution by the legislatures of 
the several states, as provided in the constitution, within seven years from 
the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress. 

1 Adopted 1913, 2 Adopted I9i9« 



THE APPENDIX 539 

A TABLE OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 



Dates 



787. Dec. 7 

757. Dec. 12 

787, Dec. 18 

788. Jan. 2 
7 88. Jan. g 
788. Feb. 6 
788, April 28 
t88. May 2j 
788, June 21 
788, June 25 

758, July 26 
:789, Nov. 21 

790, May 29 

791, March 4 

792, June I 
7q6 June i 

.803, Feb. 19 

;8i2, April 30 

816, Dec. II 

817, Dec. 10 

818, Dec. 3 
.819, Dec. 14 
:82o, March 15 

821, Aug. 10 

836, June IS 

837, Jan. 26 
845, March 3 
845, Dec. 29 

;846, Dec. 28 

84S, May 29 

850, .Sept. 9 

85S, May II 

859. Feb. 14 

861, Jan. 29 

863, June 19 

864. Oct. 31 

867, March i 
876, Aug. I 
889, Nov. 2 

;S89. Nov. 2 

889, Nov. 8 

889, Nov. II 

890. July 3 
890, July 10 
896, Jan. 4 
907, Nov. 16 
912, Jan. 6 
[912, Feb. 14 

868, July 27 
791. March 3 

[900, June 14 



Under Civil 
Government . 



No. 



Name 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania . . . 
New Jersey . . . . 

Georgia 

Connecticut . . . . 
Massachusetts . . 
Maryland . . . . ■. 
South Carolina. . 
New Hampshire. 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina. . 
Rhode Island. . . 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana. 



Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Alaska 

District of Columbia . . 

Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippines 

Guam 

Panama Canal Zone . . 
Tutuila, Samoa Islands. 
Virgin Islands 



Area in 
Square 
Miles 1 



,514 
,725 
,820 
.039 
.941 
■ 495 
,031 
,262 
.654 
.740 
,067 
,124 
,181 
,687 
.740 
.409 
.045 
,362 
.043 
,279 
.89s 
,727 
.52s 
,480 
,861 
,398 
,586 
,256 
,652 
,858 
,607 



82,184 

69,414 

122,503 

113. 810 

590,8843 

60 

6,4493 

3.4353 

120,000* 

210* 

436 

102* 

138^ 



Population 
in 1910 2 



202,322 

7,665,111 

2,537,167 

2,609,121 

1. 114.756 

3,366,416 

1,295,346 

1,515,400 

430.572 

2,061 ,61 2 

9.113,614 

2,206,287 

542,610 

355.956 

2,289,905 

2,184,789 

4,767.121 

1,656,388 

2,700,876 

I. 797. 114 

5,638,591 

2,138,093 

742,371 

3,293.335 

1,574.449 

2,810,173 

752,619 

3,896,542 

2,224,771 

2,333,860 

2.377.549 

2.075,708 

672,765 

1,690,949 

1,221,119 

81,875 

1,192,214 

799,024 

577.056 

583.888 

376,053 

1,141,990 

325.594 

145.96s 

373.351 

1,657.155 

327.301 

204,354 

64.356 

331,069 

191,909 

1.118,012 

8.937,597* 

13.689* 

62,8io5 

9,100* 

27.086* 



in 1910 

(per Rquaro 

mile) 2 



103-0 
171.0 
337.7 
44.4 
231-3 
4i8.8 
130.3 
49-7 
47.7 
51-2 
191. 2 
45-3 
508.S 
390 
S7-0 
52-4 
117-0 
36-S 
74-9 
38.8 
100.6 
41.7 
24.8 
47-9 
30.0 
48-9 
13-7 



15-3 

25-7 
7.0 

20.7 

50.8 
0.7 

iS-S 
7-7 
8.2 
7-6 
2.6 

17. 1 
3-9 
1.5 
4-5 

23-9 
2-7 



S5I7.8 
29.8 
325. S 

74-0 
65.1 

144-0 



196-3 
I910. 



1 Actual land area, excluding water. 
Abstract. 

2 Thirteenth Census of the United States. 

3 Aggregate area (land and inclosed water). 

4 The Statesman's Year Book, 1916. 

5 Census of Canal Zone, 19 12. 



Thirteenth Census of the United States 



540 



THE APPENDIX 



GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES^ 

Showing the Steady Increase in the Percentage of Toiun and City Population 



Census Years 



[820. 
1830. 
[840. 
[850. 
i860. 
1870. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1910. 



Total 
Population 2 



3.929.214 
5,308,483 
7.239,881 
9.638,453 
12.866,020 
17,069,453 
23,191,876 
31.443.321 
38,5S8,37i 
50.155.783 
62,622,250 
75.477. 467 
91,972,266* 



Population 
Living in 


Peroene«ge 
ofFopul.. 


Cities 3 


mCUi.. 


131.472 


3-4 


210,873 


4 





356,920 


4 


<) 


475.135 


4 





864.S09 


6 


7 


1.453,994 


8 


5 


2,897.586 


12 


S 


5,072,256 


16 


I 


8,071,875 


20 


9 


11.3J8.547 


22 


6 


18.272.503 


29 


2 


24.992.199 


33 


I 


38,517.727 


41.8 1 



6 
6 
II 
13 
26 
44 
8S 
141 
226 
286 
447 
545 
.232 



1 From Twelfth and Thirteenth Census of the United States. 

2 Exclusive of Indian Territory, Indian reservations, and insular possessions. 

3 Places of 8,000 inhabitants or more are here designated as cities except in 1910, 

where s.ooo is taken as the limit. 
4. Exclusive of outlying possessions. 

GROSS AREA OF THE UNITED STATES i 

Including Land and Water 



Census Years 



Gross Area 
Square 
Miles 



1790 

1800 

i8io(Louisiana purchase,! 803) 
i82o(Florida cession. 1819) ... 

1830 

1840 

i8so(Texas accession. i845,and 

Mexican cession. 184S). . . 

i86o(Gadsden purchase, 1853). 

i87o(Alaska purchase, 1867... 



[890. 



827,844 
827,844 
1.999.775 
2.059.043 
2,059,043 
2.059.043 

2,980,959 
3,025,600 
3.616.484 
3.616.484 
3.616.484 



Census Years 



1900 Hawaii (annexed. 1898) 
Porto Rico (ceded by 

Spain. 1899) 
Guam (ceded by Spain. 

1899) 
Philippines (purchased 

from Spain. 1899) 
Samoa (by treaty with 
Great Britain and 
Germany, 1900) 
1910 Panama Canal Zone (by 
treaty with Panama 
1904) 



Gross Area 

in Square 

Miles 



3.742.87J 



1 Based on the Twelfth Census of the United States, Vol. I., p. XXXII. 

2 From U. S. Department of Interior, Bulletin No. 302. 

FACTS ABOUT OUR DEPENDENCIES 



Hawaii . . . 
PortoRico. 
Guam 



Philippines 
Samoa 



Panama 
Canal Zone 



How Acquired 



Annexed 

; Ceded by Spain 
By purchase 
from Spain.. . | 

Treaty withi 
Great Britain 
and Germany 1 

Treaty with Re- 1 
public of Pan- 
ama 1 

By purchase 
from Denmark 



When 
Acquired 



July 6. 

Feb. 6, 
Feb. 16. 
Feb. 23, 



1900 
1904 



Feb. 19. 1917 



Territory 

j Civil Govem- 

< mentbyCon- 

( gress 

i Civil Govem- 
-; ment by Con- 

( gross 

I Civil Govem- 

< ment by Con- 

j gress 

(Civil Govern- 
) ment by Con- 
^ gress 



Area in 
Square 
Miles 1 



6f449 

3.435 
210 
[2O,0002 

1022 



1382 



Popula- 
tion 



191.909 

1,118.012 

13.6892 

937.5972 

9.1002 



1 From Abstract of Thirteenth Census. 

2 Estimates from Statesman's Year Book.. 

3 Census of Canal Zone,- 



THE APPENDIX 



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542 THE APPENDIX 

SOME STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES 
AND TERRITORIES 



Electoral 
1912 2 



Number of 

Children in 

Schools, 

TQ13-19143 



Per cent 
of Total 

Population 
Enrolled 

1913-19143 



Alabama 

.Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Coanecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 



Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire. 

New Jersey 

New Mexico.... 

New York 

North Carolina. . 
North Dakota. . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. . . 
Rhode Island . . . 
South Carolina. . 
South Dakota... 

Tennessee 

Te.xas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia . . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



473,150 
44.303 
439.624 
480,002 
178,392 
211,975 
35.950 
56,563 
177,154 
6 1 5. 044 
92.437 
1,043,227 
548.497 
517.559 
392,662 
532,196* 
284,136 
144,620 
245.258 
576.510 
572,201 4 

457.041 

492.7564. 

706,364 

85,782 
287,566 

11,710 

63,004 * 
496,899 

67.147 

1. 532. 151 

599.647 

148,021 

895,167 

496,908 

133,819 

I.40I.325 

86,505 
378,669 
130,812 
593,437 
830,642 4. 

96,678 

65,137 
427.937 * 
238.663 
299.135 
440.103 

29.301 



20.84 
18.53 
26.07 
17.40 
19.61 
17.63 
17.13 
16.01 
20.89 
22.15 
23.38 
17.43 
19.73 
23.30 
22.00 
22.64 
16.02 
18.96 
18.29 
15-99 

19.23 
20.64 
25-91 
20.94 
19-83 
23-08 
11.86 
14-36 
17.65 
17-51 
15-48 
25-63 
21-55 
17-81 
24.52 
17.09 
16.99 
14-63 
23-82 
19-77 
26.32 
19-51 
23.32 
18.03 
19-90 
16. 95 
22.44 
17.99 
17-36 



United States. 



19,153.786 



'9-30 



1 The number of representatives is fixed by Congress every ten years. August 8. 191 1, 
:t was provided that there should be one representative for every 211,877 persons. (See 
Constitution, Art. I., Sec. 2.) 

2 To find the number of electors, add two to the number of representatives. (See 
Constitution, Art. II., Sec. i.) In 1912 there were 531 electoral votes s.nd 266 were 
necessary for election. 

3 Report of the Department of the Interior, 1916, Commissioner of Education, Vol. II. 

4 1912-1913. 



THE INDEX 



"A. B. C." INTERVENTION, 376. 

Abolitionists, rise of, 257; form party, 
258-259. 

Academies, 237. 

Acadia, see Nova Scolia. 

Acadians, scattered through the colonies, 
102. 

Adams, Abigail, in the Revolution, 146; 
favors woman suflfrage, 471. 

Adams, John, in First Continental Con- 
gress, 114; helps make peace with Great 
Britain, 144; first vice-president, 174; 
portrait, 180; president, 181. 

Adams, John Quincy, portrait, 221; presi- 
dent, 221-222. 

Adams, Samuel, portrait, iii; writes "cir- 
cular letter," ill; proposes committees 
of correspondence, 112; British try to 
arrest, 116. 

Agricultural colleges, 417. 

Agricultural products, export of, 425. 

Agriculture, growth of, 430; modern, 437- 
438; Department of, 351. 437- 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, Philippine leader, 368. 

Airplanes, 458. 

Alabama, history of, 215; secedes from the 
Union, 282. 

"Alabama," Confederate vessel, 313. 

Alaska, boundaries of, 260, 371; discovery 
of gold in, 344; and woman suffrage, 473. 

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 346. 

Albany, named by English, 54, 

Albany Union, 100. 

Albemarle, united with Charleston, 35. 

Algonquin Indians, 95. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 181. 

Allen, Ethan, captures Ticonderoga, 120. 

Allies, America joins, 456-457; loans to, 
461. 

Amendments, constitutional, how passed, 
163'; first ten, 164; Thirteenth, 300; 
Fourteenth, 327; Fifteenth, 328, 331; Six- 
teenth, 401; Seventeenth, 461; Eight- 
eenth, 471; Nineteenth, 473. 

America, how named, 10; resources of, 350. 

America, North, visited by Northmen, 4; 
discovered by Columbus, 8; claimed by 
England, 9; physical features of, 17-19. 

America, South, discovered by Columbus, 
8; visited by Vespucius, lo. 

American Federation of Labor, 384, 400. 

Americanization, 382-383, 419-420. 

American Party, 276. 

Amnesty, proclamation of, 326; act of, 331. 

Amusements, in the colonies, 73-74; on the 
frontier, 231; in the older states, 232. 

Anarchists, 382, 386. 

Anderson, Major Robert , commander of 
Fort Sumter. 288. 

Andre, Major John, captured and hanged, 
135. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, governor of New 
England, New York, and New Jersey, 45; 
portrait, 46. 



Annapolis convention, 155. 

Annapolis, Nova Scotia, founded, 95; cap- 
tured by British, 98. 

Anthony, Susan B., 472. 

Antietam, battle of, 298. 

Appalachian Mountains, barrier to Missis- 
sippi Valley, 17. 

Appomattox, surrender at, 315. 

Arbitration, of seal fisheries dispute, 369; 
and the Hague conference, 373; and the 
United States, 374; industrial, 386-387. 

Argentine, intervention of, 376. 

Argonne Forest, Americans in, 464. 

Arizona, history of, 409; and woman suf- 
frage, 473. 

Arkansas, history of, 233; secedes from the 
Union, 289. 

Armada, Spanish, tries to conquer England, 
12; defeated, 15. 

Armistead, General Lewis A., at Gettys- 
burg, 303. 

Arnold, Benedict, wounded at Quebec, 120; 
aids Schuyler, 129; treason of, 135. 

Arthur, Chester A., portrait, 335; president, 
335. 

Atlanta, siege of. 311. 

"Atlantic Monthly," 242. 

Austria, in the World War, 450, 465. 

Aztecs, natives of Mexico, 1 1. 

BACON, NATHANIEL, rebels against 

Berkeley, 29. 
Bahama Islands, discovered by Columbus, 

Balance of trade, 427. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, Spanish explorer, 

discovers the Pacific, 10. 
Ballot, Australian, 395; reform of, 395; 

short, 395- 
Baltimore, founded, 32. 
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 211, 391. 
Baltimore, Lord, see Calvert. 
Banks, General Nathaniel P., at Port 

Hudson, 304. 
Banks, national, 322; and the panic of 1873. 

iiV, Postal Savings, 353-354; Farm 

Loan, 402; Federal Reserve, 401-402; 

Land, 436-437. 
Baptists, in Virginia, 29; in New Nether- 
land, 52; at the time of the Revolution, 

167; found colleges, 239. 
Barnard, Henry, and education, 238. 
Barry, John, in the Revolution, 133. 
Beauregard, General Pierre G. T., at battle 

of Bull Run, 291. 
Belgium, and the World War, 450. 
Belleau Wood, Americans at, 464. 
Bemis Heights, battle of. 129. 
Bennington, battle of, 129. 
Benton, Senator Thomas H., and Oregon, 

261. 
Bergen, founded by Dutch, 56. 
Berkeley, Lord John, is given New Jersey, 

56. 



543 



544 



THE INDEX 



Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia. 

28; driven out of Jamestown, 29. 
"Big business," 355. 
Biloxi, founded, 97. 
Bimetallism, 347. 
Blackbeard, famous pirate, 92. 
Black Hawk War, 234. 
"Black Republicans," 275. 
Blair, Francis P., in Missouri, 294. 
Bland-Allison Act, 344. 
Blockade, of southern ports, 291, 293-294, 

312. 
Blockhouses, 71-72. 
"Body of Liberties," 42. 
Bolivar, Simon, portrait, 218; and South 

American independence, 219. 
"Bon Homme Richard," defeats the "Scra- 

pis." 133-134- 
Boone, Daniel, goes to Kentucky, 135. 
Boonesboro, settled, 135. 
Boston, founded, 41 ; siege of, 1 18-1 19. 
Boston and Middlesex Canal, 208. 
Boston Massacre, 112. 
"Boston News Letter," earliest colonial 

newspaper, 78. 
Boston Tea Party, 11 2-1 13. 
Bowery, Stuyvesant's farm, 54. 
"Boxer" Rebellion, in China, 367-368. 
"Boycott," 387. 

Braddock, General Edward, defeat of, loi. 
Bradford, William, leader of the Pilgrims, 38. 
Bragg, General Braxton, in the West, 295- 

296; at Chickamauga, 305. 
Brandy wine, battle of, 128. 
Brazil, intervention of, 376. 
Brewster, William, Pilgrim minister in 

America, 38. 
Brooklyn Heights, battle of, 125. 
Brown, Alice, 422. 

Brown, John, raids Harper's Ferry, 2S0. 
Brown College, 77. 
Bryan, William Jennings, portrait. 347; 

candidate for president, 347, 353; makes 

"wait-a-bit" treaties, 374. 
Bryant, William Cullen, 240. 
Buchanan, James, portrait, 275; president, 

276; and secession, 282-284. 
Buell, General Don Carlos, at Louisville, 

296. 
Buffalo, world's fair at, 346. 
Bulgaria, in the World War, 450, 465. 
Bull Run, battle of, 291; second battle of, 

297. 
Bunker Hill, battle of, 11 8-1 19. 
Burgesses, House of, established in Vir- 
ginia, 27; in Maryland, 31. 
Burgoyne, General John, marches against 

Albany, 128; surrenders at Saratoga, 

129. 
Burke, Edmund, English statesman, 108; 

speaks in favor of the colonies, 116. 
Bumside, General Ambrose E., succeeds 

McClellan, 298. 
Butler, General Benjamin F., and "con- 
trabands of war," 299. 
By-products, use of, 444-445. 

CABINET, how formed, 175-176. 
Cable, George W., 422. 
Cable, across the Atlantic, 250. 
Cabot, John, visits North America, 9- 



Cabot, Sebastian, visits North America, 9. 

Cahokia, captured by George Rogers 
Clark, 136. 

Calhoun, John C, and the trouble with 
England, 194; in the great debate, 268. 

California, history of, 235; admitted to 
the Union, 266; and the Mexican War, 
265; purchase of, 265; discovery of 
gold in, 265-266; and woman suffrage, 
473- 

Calvert, Cecil, portrait, 31; sends first 
colony to Maryland, 30. 

Calvert, George, portrait, 30; obtains Mary- 
land, 30. 

Cambridge, founded, 41. 

Camden, battle of, 139. 

Camp meetings, 232, 242. 

Canada, becomes British, 104-105; and 
fugitive slaves, 270. 

Canals, 208-209; trade influenced by, 253. 

Canal Zone, see Panama Canal. 

Canary Islands, visited by Columbus, 7. 

Cape of Good Hope, passed by Dias, 6. 

Capital, organized, 385. 

Caribbean Sea, control of, 403. 

Carnegie, Andrew, establishes public 
libraries, 423. 

Carolinas, given by King to eight favorites, 
32; first settled, 32-33; attempt to 
establish feudalism in, 33; characteristics 
and products of, 34; slavery in, 34; see 
also North Carolina and South Carolina. 

Carpenters' Hall, 114; picture, 114. 

Carpetbaggers, in the South, 329; fall of, 
334- 

Carranza, Venustrano, president of Mexico, 
375. 403. 

Carroll, Charles, and the railroad, 211. 

Carteret, George, is given New Jersey, 156. 

Cartier, Jacques, French e.xplorer, sails up 
St. Lawrence, 13. 

Cartwright, Peter, 243. 

Catholics, in England, 37; in Maryland, 
30; at the time of the Revolution, 167; 
send missionaries to Oregon, 261. 

Caucus, 394. 

Cavaliers, migrate to Virginia, 28. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 310. 

Cemetery Ridge, 302. 

Cervera, Admiral, at battle of Santiago, 
361. 

Champlain, Samuel, French explorer, 95- 
96. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 301. 

Charles I, King of England, forced to sign 
Petition of Right, 40; grants charter to 
Massachusetts Bay Company, 41; por- 
trait, 43; beheaded, 28, 43. 

Charles II, King of England, ascends the 
throne, 28, 45; invited to Virginia, 28; 
revokes Massachusetts' charter, 45. 

Charleston, founded, 33- 

Chase, Salmon P., portrait, 322; estab- 
lishes national banks. 322. 

Chateau-Thierry, Americans at, 463. 

Chatham, Earl of. see Pitt. William. 

Chattanooga, battles a.ound, 305. 

Cherry Valley, massacre of, 134. 

Chicago, Marquette's winter quarters, 96; 
early history of, 215; world's fair at, 
34.S- 



THE INDEX 



545 



Chickamauga, battle of, 305. 

Child labor, in the early factories, 232; 
regulation of, 389. 

Children's Bureau, 389. 

Chile, intervention of, 376. 

China, and the "Boxer" Rebellion, 367- 
368; trade with, 253. 

Chippewa, battle of, 200. 

Christian Commission, 318. 

Christians, see Disciples. 

Christina, founded, 55. 

Church, officers of, 3; in the colonies, 71- 
72; growing influence of, 470. 

Churchill, Winston, 423. 

"Cibola, Seven cities of," 12, 409. 

"Circuit riders," 242. 

Cities, European before 1500, i; American, 
64, 165, 230; and immigration, 379- 
380; and the railroads, 391; govern- 
ment of, 397-399; industries in, 443- 
446. 

Citizens" Industrial Association of America, 
38s. 

City manager plan, 398-399. 

Civil Rights Bill, 327. 

Civil Service, reform of, 335-336. 

Civil War, 287-316; cost of, 319-320; 
results of, 320-322. 

Claiborne, WilUam, causes trouble in 
Maryland, 32. 

Clark, George Rogers, in the Revolution, 
136-137. 

Clark, William, expedition to Oregon, 188. 

Clark's Grant, 153. 

Clay, Henry, and the trouble with England, 
194; and the "American System," 206; 
political leader in the West, 212; and 
the Missouri Compromise, 218; portrait, 
225; candidate for president, 225; 
favors the United States Bank, 226; 
in great debate, 267-268; introduces 
"Omnibus Bill." 268; death of, 269, 

Clayton Anti-Trust Act, 388, 402. 

Clemens, Samuel L., "Mark Twain," 422. 

Clergy, European before 1500, 3. 

"Clermont," first successful steamboat, 206. 

Cleveland, Grover, portrait, 336; presi- 
dent, 337. 

Clinton, De Witt, and the Erie Canal, 209; 
candidate for president, 196. 

Clipper ships, 253. 

Clubhouses, community, 390. 

Coal, used in smelting ore, 212; increasing 
use of, 249; in the Northwest, 406. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 309. 

Cold Storage, 434- 

Collective bargaining, 384. 

Colleges, colonial, 76-78. 

Colombia, and the Panama Canal, 365. 

Colonies, government in, 92. 

Colorado, 325, 404. 

Columbia University, 77- 

Columbian Exposition, 345. 

Columbus, Christopher, seeks aid from 
Portugal and Spain, 7; portrait, 7; 
first voyage of, 7; later voyages of, 8; 
death of, 9. 

Commerce, colonial, 90, 108; at the close 
of the Revolution, 151; and the Con- 
stitution, 156; of the new West, 172- 
173; growth of, 253, 337. 425-429. 

19 



Commission plan of government, 398. 

Committees of Safety, in the Revolution, 
149. 

Community centers, schools as, 420. 

Compromise of 1850, 267-269. 

Concord, battle of, 117. 

Conestoga wagons, 171. 

Confederacy, formed, 283; constitution of, 
283. 

Confederation, Articles of, 150; weakness 
of, 150-151. 

Congregationalists, in Massachusetts, 41; 
send missionaries to Oregon, 261. 

Congress, Stamp Act, no; Continental, 
1 14-1 is; how elected, 160; powers of, 160. 

Connecticut, settled by Thomas Hooker, 43 ; 
early settlements in, 47; joins New Eng- 
land Confederation, 47; given a charter, 
48. 

Connecticut Compromise, 156. 

Conservation, of natural resources, 351. 

Constantinople, captured by Turks, 5. 

Constitution, compromises of, 156; how 
amended, 163; how ratified, 158; Amend- 
ments of, see Amendments, Consliht- 
lional; of the Confederacy, 283. 

"Constitution," captures the "Guerriere," 
19S. 

Constitutional Convention, 155. 

Continental Congress, First, 114-115. 

"Continentalist," Hamilton's paper, 152. 

Conventions, nominating, 394. 

Conway Cabal, 129. 

Coolidge, Calvin, elected vice-president, 474. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, 240; portrait, 240. 

Cooper, Peter, builder of early locomotive, 
211. 

Corn, found in America, 15. 

Cornwallis, Lord Charles, at Trenton and 
Princeton, 126-127; at battle of Cam- 
den, 139; surrenders at Yorktown, 143. 

Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, explores 
the Southwest, 12; in Arizona, 409. 

Correspondence, Committees of, 112. 

Cortez, Hernando, Spanish explorer, con- 
quers Mexico, II. 

Costume, in the colonies. 68. 

Cotton, production of, 246; importance of 
to South, 294; manufacture of, 443, 447. 

Cotton gin, invention of, 170; and slavery, 
217, 257. 

Cotton industry, growth of, 170. 

Courts, United States, 162. 

Cowpens, battle of, 140. 

Cox, James, candidate for president, 474. 

Craddock, Charles Egbert, 422. 

"Creoles," 214. 

Crittenden Compromise, 284-285. 

Cromwell, Oliver, rule in Virginia, 28; 
restores Lord Baltimore's authority in 
Maryland, 32; at the head of the English 
government, 43. 

Crusades, effect on Western Europe, 5. 

Cuba, discovered by Columbus, 8; rebellion 
in, 357-358; American interest in, 358; 
war in, 360; made independent, 361; con- 
ditions in after the war, 362; relations 
of United States to, 363. 

Cumberland Gap, gateway to the West, 17; 
visited by Boone, 135.. 

Cumberland Road, 207. 



546 



THE INDEX 



Currency, iSL 323. 339-340, 343-345. 348. 

"Current Events," 424. 

Custer, General George, at battle of the 

Little Big Horn. 413. 
Czar of Russia, calls peace meeting, 373- 

DA GAMA, VASCO, reaches India. 6. 
Dakota Territory, 404; see also North 

Dakota and South Dakota. 
Dale, Sir Thomas, governor of Virginia. 25. 
Danes, immigration of, 378. 
Darrah, Lydia, saves Washington's army, 

147- 
Dartmouth College, 77. 
Davenport, John, founds New Haven. 47. 
Davis, Jefiferson, home of. 214; champion 

of slavery. 268; portrait, 283; president of 

the Confederacy, 283; and the surrender 

of Richmond, 315. 
Davis, Richard Harding, 423. 
Dawes Act, 413-414. 
Debtors, imprisonment of. 35, 167. 
Declaration of Independence, 123-125. 
Declaration of Rights, 1 15. 
De Kalb, Baron Johann, joins the American 

army, 127; sent to spy out America, 130; 

killed at battle of Camden. 140. 
Delaware, first settlement of. 55; joined to 

Pennsylvania. 55-56. 
Delaware, Lord, arrives in Virginia. 25. 
De Lesseps, Ferdinand, attempts to build 

Panama Canal. 364. 
Democratic party, rise of. 225; breaks up, 

280. 
De Monts, founds Annapolis. 95. 
De Soto, Hernando, Spanish explorer, dis- 
covers the Mississippi, 12. 
Detroit, surrendered to British, 197. 
"Deutchland," German submarine, 452. 
Dewey, Commodore George, at Manila 

Bay. 359-360. 
Dias, Bartholomew, rounds Cape of Good 

Hope. 6. 
Diaz, Porfirio, president of Mexico, 375. 
Dickinson, John, author of "Letters of a 

Farmer.'; 1 1 1 ; in First Continental Con- 
gress. 114. 
Dingley tariff, 347- 
Disciples, at the time of the Revolution. 

167. 
Dismal Swamp Canal, 208. 
Dongan, Thomas, governor of New York, 

Dorchester, founded. 41. 

Dorr's Rebellion, 229. 

Douglas, Stephen A., early life of. 272; and 
the Kansas question. 273; debates with 
Lmcoln, 278-280; calls upon Lincoln, 288. 

Draft, in the Civil War. 306. 318; in the 
World War. 459. 

Drake, Sir Francis, English explorer, por- 
trait. 14; sails round the world. 14. 

Dred Scott Decision, 276. 

"Duke's Laws," in New York, 54- 

Dutch, bring first slaves to America, 26; 
in the colonies, 64. 

Dutch West India Company, 51. 

EARLY, GENERAL JUBAL A., in the 

Shenandoah, 309-310. 



Eaton, Theophilus, founds New Haven, 47. 

Edison, Thomas A., inventor, 447. 

Education, in the colonies, 74-78; at the 
time of the Revolution, 166; growth of, 
237. 414-421. 

Edwards, Jonathan, great colonial preacher, 
Si. 

Eggleston, Edward, 422. 

El Caney, battle of. 360. 

Electric light, invention of, 447. 

Elevators, 434. 

Elizabeth, Queen of England, knights 
Francis Drake, 14; names Virginia, 15. 

Elizabethtown, founded, 56. 

Emancipation, in the District of Columbia, 
299; in the territories. 299; by state 
action. 300; in the seceded states, 300; 
in the border slave states. 300; by the 
Thirteenth Amendment. 300. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 299-300. 

Embargo, i'j3- 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 241. 

"Emigrant Aid Society," 274. 

Employers, organizations of. 385. 

Endicott, John, founder of Salem. 41. 

England, leads in exploration (1497), 9; 
sends the Cabots to explore America. 9; 
sends Drake and Raleigh to explore 
America, 14; defeats the Spanish Armada, 
is; charters London and Plymouth Com- 
panies, 23; sends first settlers to Virginia, 
23-25; purpose of in planting colonies, 
107; and American trade, 179, 192-193; 
•and the Civil War. 291-292; and the 
Panama Canal, 364-365. 

English, in the colonies. 64. 

English Church, in the Carolinas, 33; in 
England. 37; becomes Protestant Epis- 
copal. 167. 

"Era of good feeling," 221. 

Erdman Arbitration Act, 387. 

Ericson, Lief, discovers America, 4. 

Erie Canal, 209-210. 

"Essex," captures British vessels in Pacific, 
199. 

Europe, conditions in before 1500, 1-4. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 141. 

Excise tax, 177. 

Exports, 425-427. 

Express companies, beginning of. 252. 

FAIRFAX, LORD, in Virginia. 63. 

Farmers, colonial. 83-84, 88; implements 
of, 84-S5, 245-246. 430-432; living con- 
ditions of. 245. 430-431, 455-456. 

Farmers' Alliance, 340. 

Farm Loan Bank Act, 402. 

Farragut, Admiral David G., on board the 
"Essex." 199; at New Orleans. 295; por- 
trait. 312; at Mobile Bay. 312. 

Federalists, origin of. 177; decline of, 181. 

Federal Reserve Act, 401. 

Ferdinand, Archduke, assassination of. 450. 

Ferguson, Major Patrick, at King's Moun- 
tain. 140. 

Feudalism, in Europe before 1500, 4; 
attempt to establish in Maryland. 31; 
attempt to establish in Carolinas, a. 

Fisheries, colonial. 88; French at New- 
foundland, 95; dispute over Newfound- 
land, 372; in Washington, 406. 



THE INDEX 



547 



Florida, explored by Ponce de Leon, lo; 
becomes British, los; southern boundary 
cf the United States, 144; history of 
218, 233; secedes from the Union, 282. 

"Florida," Confederate vessel, 313. 

Foch, General Ferdinand, commander for 
the Allies, 462. 

Foote, Commodore Andrew H., at Mem- 
phis, 295. 

"Force Bill" (1833). 256. 

"Force Bills" (1870-71). 33i- 

Forestry Service, 3Si- 

Fort Donelson, captured by Grant, 294. 

Fort Duquesne, captured by British, 103. 

Fort Henry, captured by Grant, 294-295. 

Fort Orange, becomes Albany, 54. 

France, explorations and settlements of, 13. 
i4i 95-97; fisheries of, 95; sends help to 
America, 130-131; alliance with, 131; 
interferes with American shipping, 179, 
193; and the Panama Canal, 364; in the 
World War, 450-451. 

Franklin, Benjamin, Albany plan of, 100- 
loi; talks with Pitt, 115-116; in France, 
130; helps make peace with Great Britain, 
144; proposes confederation, 149; at the 
Constitutional Convention, 155- 

Frederica, settled as barrier against Span- 
iards, 36. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 298-299. 

Freedmen's Bureau, 327. 

Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins, 422. 

Freeman's Farm, battles of, 129. 

"Free-Silver," 347-348. 

Free-Soil party, 265. 

Fremont, John C, explores Oregon, 262; in 
the Mexican War, 264. 

French, in New Orleans, 214. 

French and Indian Wars, 98-106. 

French Revolution, 178, 399- 

Frontier, end of, 410-41 1. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 267, 269, 270. 

Fuller, Margaret, 472. 

Fulton, Robert, builds the " Clermont," 206. 



GADSDEN PURCHASE, 265, 409. 

Gage, General Thomas, ordered to arrest 

Adams and Hancock, 114; sends force 

to Concord, 116; at the battle of Bunker 

Hill, 118. 
Garfield, H. A., 461. 
Garfield, James A., portrait, 3351 president, 

335- 
Garland, Hamhn, 423. 
Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist 

leader, 257; portrait, 257. 
"Gaspee," burned, 112. 
Gates, General Horatio, succeeds General 

Schuyler, 129; defeated at Camden, 139. 
Genoa, early trade routes of, 5; birthplace 

of Columbus, 6. 
George III, King of England, 108-109; 

drives the colonies to separation, 122; and 

American independence, 143. 
Georgia, founded, 35; religious denomina- 
tions in, 36; secedes from the Union, 282. 
Germans, in the colonies, 64; in the Caro- 

linas, 3i; early immigration of, 231; plots 

of in America, 454. 
Germantown, battle of, 128. 



Germany, invades Belgium, 450-451; 
United States breaks with, 453-454; 
colonies of, 454. 4^7; defeated, 464; 
troubles in, 465; terms of peace with, 466. 

Gettysburg, battle of, 302. 

Ghent, treaty of, 201-202. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, given charter for 
trade in America, 14. 

Gold, Spanish discoveries of, 12; dis- 
covered in California, 235, 252, 265-266; 
discovered in Alaska, 344; discovered in 
South Africa, 348. 

Golden Hill, battle of, 112. 

Gold Standard Law, 348. 

Gomez, Cuban leader, 357-358. 

Gompers, Samuel, labor leader, 388. 

Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, settles Maine, 46. 

Government, state, origin of, 94. 

Governor, how elected, 149. 

Grangers, 340. 

Grant, General Ulysses S., in the West, 
294; at Vicksburg, 303-304; at Lookout 
Mountain, 305; portrait, 309; head of the 
Union armies, 309; and Lee's surrender, 
315-316; president, 332. 

Great Britain, and the Oregon question, 
262; arbitration with, 369-373; in the 
World War, 450-451. 

"Great Migration," 41. 

Greeks, immigration of, 379. 

Greeley, Horace, candidate for president, 
332. 

Greenback party, 334- 

Greenbacks, 339-340. 

Greene, Nathanael, takes command in the 
South, 140. 

Guam, annexation of, 362. 

"Guerriere," captured by the "Constitu- 
tion," 198. 

Guilford, founded, 47. 

Guilford Courthouse, battle of, 141. 

Gustavus, Adolphus, King of Sweden, 55. 

HAGUE PEACE MEETINGS, 373. 

Haiti, discovered by Columbus, 8; United 
States in, 375. 

"Half Moon," Hudson's ship, 50. 

Hamilton, Alexander, portrait, 152; favors 
a stronger government, 152; at the Con- 
stitutional Convention, 155; secretary of 
treasury, 175. 

Hampton Roads Conference, 310. 

Hancock, John, British try to arrest, 114, 
116; president of Congress, 119. 

Hancock, General Winfield Scott, at 
Gettysburg, 302. 

Harding, Warren G., elected president, 475. 

Harlem Heights, battle of, 125. 

"Harpers' Magazine," 242. 

Harrison, Benjamin, portrait, 338; presi- 
dent, 338. 

Harrison, General William Henry, at battle 
of Tippecanoe, 197; portrait, 228; presi- 
dent, 228. 

Harrodsburg, settled, 135. 

Harte, Bret, 422. 

Hartford, founded, 47. 

Hartford Convention, 201. 

Harvard College, 76. 

Hat Act, 108. 

Hawaiian Islands, 366-367. 



548 



THE INDEX 



Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 240. 

Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 364-365- 

Hayes, Rutherford B., portrait, 334; 
prosident. 334- 

Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 422. 

Hayne, Robert Y., speech on nullification, 
255- 

Hennepin, Louis, French explorer, 96-07- 

Henrietta Maria, Queen of England, 
Maryland named for, 30. 

Henry O., 423. 

Henry, Patrick, addresses the House of 
Burgesses, 109; in First Continental 
Congress, 114. 

Henry, Prince, of Portugal, hunts route 
to India, 6. 

Herkimer, General Nicholas, at battle of 
Oriskany, 129. 

Hessians, hired to fight the Americans, 
122; at Trenton, 126; at battle of 
Bennington, 129. 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 141- 

Hobson, Richmond P., at battle of San- 
tiago, 361. 

Holland, Pilgrims in, 38; religious tolera- 
tion in, 50; founds New Netherland, 
50-52. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 241. 

Holy Alliance, 219. 

Home life, in the colonies, 70-71, 73; on 
the frontier, 231; in the older states, 232; 
made more comfortable, 248. 

Hood, General John B., succeeds Johnston, 
311; at Nashville, 314. 

Hooker, General Joseph, (Fighting Joe), 
succeeds Burnside, 299; at battle of 
Chancellorsville, 301; at Lookout Moun- 
tain, 30S- 

Hooker, Thomas, settles in Connecticut, 43. 

"Hoosier State," 214. 

Hoover, Herbert C, 461. 

Howe, Elias, invents the sewing machine, 
248. 

Howe, George E., British general in French 
and Indian Wars, 103. 

Howe, General William, at the battle of 
Bunker Hill, 118; leaves for Halifax, 
120; at battle of Brooklyn Heights, 125. 

Howells, William Dean, 423. 

Hudson, Henry, Dutch explorer, sails up 
Hudson River, 50. 

Hudson River, early route to the West, 17- 

Huerta, Victoriano, president of Mexico, 
375. 

Hughes, Charles E., candidate for presi- 
dent, 453- 

Huguenots, French Protestants, plant a 
colony at Port Royal, 14; in the Caro- 
linas, 34; in the colonies, 64. 

Hull, Captain Isaac, commander of the 
"Constitution," 198. 

Hull, General William, surrenders Detroit, 
197- 

Hungarians, immigration of, 379- 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, banished from 
Massachusetts, 42. 

IDAHO, history of, 407; and woman suf- 
rage, 473- 

lUinois, history of, 214; and woman suf- 
frage, 473. 



Immigrants, forced, 66; naturalization of, 
38r. 

Immigration, early, 230-231; Chinese, 332; 
during the Civil War, 378; and the rail- 
roads, 378; and industries, 379; restric- 
tion of, 380; prohilem of, 382. 

"Implied powers," 160. 

Imports, 427. 

Income tax, 340, 341-342, 401, 461. 

Independence Hall, Lincoln speaks in, 285. 

India, reached by Da Gama, 6; trade with, 
253- 

Indiana, history of, 214; education in, 238; 
and woman suflfrage, 473. 

Indians, named by Columbus, 8; treatment 
of by Spaniards, 13; characteristics and 
customs, 19-22; map showing tribes, 
opp. 20; ideas about land, 20-21; 
organization and government, 2 1 ; massa- 
cre early settlers in Virginia, 29; teach 
settlers to hunt and cook, 30, 39; over- 
thrown in New England, 45; fight the 
Dutch in New Netherland, 52; friendly 
to Penn, 60; Algonquin, 95; Iroquois, 
95 ; in Iowa, 234; in Wisconsin, 234; 
treatment of by United States, 411-414. 

Indian Territory, 404, 412. 

Indigo, product of South Carolina, 34. 

Industrial Revolution, 169. 

Industries, at the time of the Revolution, 
168; in the Civil War, 322; and immi- 
gration, 379; and commerce, 425-427; 
distribution of, 442, 444. 

Initiative, 355. 396- 

Injunction, 387-388. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, 337- 

Intolerable Acts, 113. 

Inventors and inventions, 447-449- 

lowa, 234. 

Irish, early immigration of, 231. 

Iron, manufacture of, 89, 247, 445-446. 

Iron Works Act, 108. 

Iroquois, 95- 

Irrigation, Mormons begin, 237; growing 
use of, 352-353- 

Irving, Washington, 240. 

Isabella, Queen, aids Columbus, 7- 

Isle of Pines, acquired by United States, 
363- 

Italians, immigration of, 379. 

Italy, and the World War, 451. 

luka, battle of, 296. 

JACKSON, ANDREW, captures New 
Orleans, 201; character of , 222; his cam- 
paign, 223; portrait, 224; inauguration, 
224; president, 224-225; opposes the 
United States Bank, 226. 

Jackson, "Stonewall," in the Shenandoah, 
297; portrait, ^^oi; death of, 301. 

Jamaica, discovered by Columbus, 8. 

James I, King of England, promises 
settlers shall remain Englishmen, 23. 

James II, King of England, makes Andros 
governor of New England, New York, 
and New Jersey, 45; driven from throne, 
45. 55; destroys New York assembly, 54. 

James, Henry, 423. 

Jamestown, settled (1607), 24. 

Japan, trade with, 253; at war with Russia, 
350; in the World War, 451. 



THE INDEX 



549 



Japanese, immigration of, 380-381. 

Jay, John, in First Continental Congress, 
us; peace commissioner, 144; judge of 
the Supreme Court, 176. 

Jay's Treaty, 179-180. 

Jefferson, Thomas, secretary of state, 175; 
portrait, 182; president, 183; character 
and popularity, 184-185; and the patent 
law, 448. 

Jewett, Sarah Orne, 422. 

Jews, in Georgia, 36; immigration of, 379- 

Johnson, Andrew, president, 326-327; im- 
peachment of, 328. 

Johnston, Albert Sidney, death of, 295. 

Johnston, General Joseph E., at battle of 
Bull Run, 291; at Kenesaw Mountain, 
311; at White House Landing, 297; suc- 
ceeds Bragg, 305. 

Joliet, Louis, French explorer, 96. 

Jones, John Paul, portrait, 132; defeats the 
"Serapis," I33-I34- 

Judges, Federal, how appointed, 157. 

Judicial Department, 162. 

KANSAS, the struggle over, 273-275; his- 
tory of, 323; and woman suffrage, 473. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 273-275. 

Kaskaskia, captured by George Rogers 
Clark, 136. 

"Kearsarge," sinks the "Alabama," 313. 

Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 311. 

Kent Island, claimed by Claiborne, 32. 

Kentucky, first settlements, 135; history of, 
190. 

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, 181. 

Key, Francis Scott, writes "Star Spangled 
Banner," 200-201. 

Kidd, Captain, famous pirate, 92. 

King, how chosen, 3; power of, 4. 

King George's War, 98-99. 

King PhiHp's War, 45. 

King's College, 77- 

King's Mountain, battle of, 140. 

King William's War, 98. 

Klondike, gold field, 546. 

Knights of Labor, 340, 384. 

"Know-Nothings," see American party. 

Knox, General Henry, secretary of war, 175. 

Kosciusko, Thaddeus, joins the American 
army, 127; at battle of Bemis Heights, 
129. 

Ku Klux Klan, 330. 

LABOR, in the colonies, 83; improvement 
in conditions of, 244; Department of, 387. 

Labor party, 332. 

Labor unions, in Europe before 1500, 2; 
growth of, 243, 383-388; oppose Japanese 
immigration, 380-381. 

"Ladies Magazine," 242. 

Ladrone Islands, visited by Magellan, 10. 

Lafayette, Jean Paul, joins the American 
army, 127; portrait, 131; visits Wash- 
ington at Mount Vernon, 145. 

La FoUette, Robert, aids the Progressive 
movement, 355. 

Lake Erie, battle of, 197. 

Land banks, 436-437. 

Lanier, Sidney, 422. 

La Salle, Robert de, French explorer, 96-97. 



Laurens, Henry, peace commissioner to 
Great Britain, 144. 

League of Nations, 466, 474. 

Lecompton Constitution, 274. 

Lee, Richard Henry, Revolutionary hero, 
114; captures Paulus Hook, 135; argues 
against the Constitution, 158. 

Lee, General Robert E., succeeds General 
Johnston, 297; invades the North, 297- 
299; at battle of Antietam, 298; portrait, 
299; at battle of Chancellorsville, 301; 
at Gettysburg, 302; surrender of, 315. 

Legislature, state, negroes in, 329-330. 

Leiden, picture, 38; Pilgrims in, 38. 

Leisler, Jacob, rule of, 55- . 

Lewis, Meriwether, portrait, 187; expedi- 
tion to Oregon, 188. 

Lewis and Clark Exposition, 346. 

Lexington, battle of, 117. 

Liberal Republicans, 332. 

"Liberator," abolitionist newspaper, 257. 

Liberty Bonds, 461. 

Libraries, colonial, 78-79; public, 423. 

Lincoln, Abraham, home of, 214; portrait, 
277; early life, 277; debates with Doug- 
las, 278-280; elected president, 281; 
inauguration of, 285; character of, 306- 
307; at the Hampton Roads Conference, 
310; death of, 316; and woman suffrage, 
472. 

Lincoln, General Benjamin, in the South, 
137-138. 

Liquors, tax on, 177. 

"Literary Digest," 424. 

Literature, at the time of the Revolution, 
166; growth of, 422. 

Little Big Horn, battle of, 412-413. 

Livingston, Philip, in First Continental 
Congress, 114. 

Lockout, 386. 

Log Cabin Campaign, 227-228. 

"Log rollings," 204. 

London, Jack, 423. 

London Company, given charter for Vir- 
ginia, 23; loses charter, 27. 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 241; por- 
trait, 241. 

Longstreet, General James, 305. 

Lookout Mountain, battle of, 305. 

Louisburg, captured by British, 99, 103. 

Louisiana, named and explored, 97; history 
of, 213; secedes from the Union, 282. 

Louisiana Purchase, 187. 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 346. 

Lowell, James Russell, 241. 

Lundy's Lane, battle of, 200. 

"Lusitania," sinking of, 452. 

Lynn, founded, 41. 

Lyon, General Nathaniel, killed at Wilson 
Creek, 294. 

McADOO, WILLIAM, controls railroads, 
460-461. 

McClellan, General George B., commands 
Army of the Potomac, 291; in the Pen- 
insular Campaign, 296-297; portrait, 
297; at battle of Antietam, 298. 

McClintock, Mary Ann, 472. 

McCormick, Cyrus H., invents reaper, 245. 

McDowell, General Irvin, at battle of Bull 
Run, 291. 



S50 



THE INDEX 



"Macedonian," captured by the "United 
States," 199- 

Machinery, invention of, 169. 

McKinley, William, president, 347; por- 
trait, 348; and the Spanish-American 
War, 3S8. 

McKinley Tariff, 339. 340- 

Madero, Francisco I., president of Mexico, 
375- 

Madison, James, favors a stronger govern- 
ment, 152; at the Constitutional Con- 
vention, 155; president, 194; portrait, 196. 

Magazines, 242, 423-424. 

Magellan, Ferdinand, sails around the 
world, ID. 

Maine, early settlements in, 46; history of, 
216. 

"Maine," destruction of. 358-359- 

Manassas Junction, battle of, 291. 

Manhattan Island, first settlement on, 50; 
bought from Indians, 51. 

Manila Bay, battle of, 359-360. 

Mann, Horace, portrait, 238; and educa- 
tion, 238. 

Manufactures, colonial, 89-90; growth of, 
247, 437-439; export of, 425-426. 

Marco Polo, Italian traveler, 5. 

Marion, Francis, in the Revolution, 138- 
139. 

Marne, battle of the, 451. 

Marquette, Jacques, French explorer, 96. 

Marshall, John, chief justice, 183. 

Maryland, named, 30; settlements in, 30-32. 

Mason, James M., Confederate commis- 
sioner to England, 292. 

Mason, Captain John, settles New Hamp- 
shire, 46. 

"Mason and Dixon's line," 61. 

Massachusetts, settlements in, 38-41; loses 
charter, 45; gets charter from William 
and Mary, 46; forms state government, 
149. 

Massachusetts Bay Colony, company 
formed, 41 ; government, 41-42. 

Massasoit, Indian chief, 39- 

Matches, invention of, 248. 

Mather, Cotton, colonial preacher, 81. 

"Mayflower," Pilgrim's ship, 38; picture, 
39- 

"Mayflower Compact," 38. 

Meade, General George G., at Gettysburg, 
302. 

Meat packing, 445. 

Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, de- 
clares its independence, 122. 

Memphis, surrender of, 295. 

Merchant marine, 429. 

Merchants, European before 1500, 2. 

"Merrimac," battle with "Monitor," 292. 

Merritt, General Wesley, at Manila, 360. 

Methodists, at the time of the Revolution, 
167; colleges of, 239; in the West, 242; 
send missionaries to Oregon, 260. 

Mexico, conquered by Cortez, 11; Texas 
revolts from, 259; war with, 262-265; 
United troops in, 375, 402. 

Michigan, 233; University of, 240. 

Miles, General Nelson A., in Porto Rico, 
360. 

Milford, founded, 47. 
Miller, Joaquin, 422. 



Mines and mining, 212, 249. 

Minnesota, 235. 

Minutemen, at Lexington and Concord, 
117; at battle of Bennington, 1 29. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 305- 

Mississippi, history of, 214; secedes from 
the Union, 282. 

Mississippi River, discovered by De Soto, " 
12; western boundary of the United 
States, 144; Spain tries to close the 
mouth of, 153, 186; and western trade, 
173; importance of, in Civil War, 294. 

Missouri, 216. 

Missouri Compromise, 218; Douglas pro- 
poses to repeal, 273; declared unconsti- 
tutional, 276. 

Mobile, founded, 97. 

Mobile Bay, captured by Farragut, 312. 

Mohawk River, route to the West, 17. 

Money, see Currency. 

"Monitor," battle with "Merrimac," 292- 
293- 

Monmouth, battle of, 133. 

Monroe, James, portrait, 220; president, 
220-221. 

Monroe Doctrine, 219-220; and Venezuela, 
371. 374; new meaning of, 376. 

Montana, 405-406; and woman suffrage, 
473- 

Montcalm, Louis Joseph de, French gen- 
eral, 102, 104; portrait, 103. 

Montreal, named by Cartier, 13; captured 
by British, 104. 

Morality, growth of, 167-168, 243. 

Moravians, in Georgia, 36. 

Morgan, General Daniel, captured at Que 
bee, 120; aids Schuyler, 129; at battle of 
Cowpens, 139-140. 

Mormons, migration of, 236-237; and irri- 
gation, 352; in Utah, 407. 

Morrill Act, 417, 440. 

Morris, Gouverneur, portrait, 157; writes 
the Constitution, .157. 

Morris, Robert, pays Washington's sol- 
diers, 127. 

Morse, Samuel F. B., invents the tele- 
graph, 249-250. 

Mott, Lucretia, 257, 472. 

Mount Vernon, Washington's home, 145. 

"Mugwumps," 336. 

Murfreesboro, battle of, 296. 

Murray, Mrs., entertains British generals. 



NAPOLEON, 186, 102, 202. 

Nashville, Ijattle of, 314. 

National Association of Manufacturers, 385. 

National Republicans, nominate Clay, 225. 

National Road, 207. 

Natural resources, 350-351- 

Naturalization, 381. 

Navigation Acts, 53. 

Navigation Laws, 108. 

Nebraska, and woman suffrage, 473. 

Negroes, made citizens, 327; given the vote, 
328, 331; as soldiers, 301; and the Freed- 
men's Bureau, 327; rule the South, 329- 
330; see also slavery. 

Nevada, 324-325; and woman suffrage, 473. 

New Amsterdam, 52, 53. 

Newark, founded, 56. 



THE INDEX 



551 



New England, trades with Maryland, 31; 

explored by John Smith, 37. 
New England Confederation, joined by 

Plymouth, 40; organization of, 43. 
Newfoundland fisheries arbitration, 372. 
New France, 95-97- 
New Hampshire, early settlements in, 46; 

forms state government, 149. 
"New Hampshire Gazette," oldest news- 
paper, 241. 
New Haven, founded, 47. 
New Jersey, early settlements, 56; bought 

by the Quakers, 571 becomes royal 

province, 57- 
Newlands Act, 387. 
New Mexico, purchase of, 265; history of, 

408-409- 
New Netherland, surrenders to English, 53. 
New Orleans, founded, 97; captured by 

Jackson, 201; and western trade, 207; 

in 1810, 214; captured by Farragut, 295. 
Newport, founded, 48. 
Newspapers, growth of, 241-242, 423. 
New Sweden, see Delaware. 
New York, religious toleration in, 54; and 

woman suffrage, 473. 
New York Bay, seen by Verrazano, 13. 
New York Central Railroad, 391- 
New York City, named by English, 53; 

becomes the largest city in the United 

States, 210. 
"New York Tribune," 242. 
Nicholson, Meredith, 423. 
Nobles, before 1500, 3. 
Nominating conventions, 394- 
Non-importation, agreements, 109, no; 

Act, 192- 
Non-intercourse Acts, 194- 
North, Lord, English statesman, 112; 

proposes plan of conciliating colonies, 

116; wishes to resign, 132. 
North, industry in, 254; strength of (i860), 

289-290- 
"North American Review," 242. 
North Carolina, location of Raleigh's 

colonies, 15; secedes from the Union, 289; 

University of, 240. 
North Dakota, history of, 405; and woman 

suffrage, 473- 
Northern Pacific Railroad, 405, 406, 407. 
Northmen, visit North America, 4. 
Northwest Territory, 153. 
Norwegians, immigration of, 378. 
Nova Scotia, visited by Cabot, 9; captured 

by British, 98. 
NuUification, doctrine of, in Kentucky, 182; 

in South Carolina, 255-256; and the 

Fugitive Slave Law, 270. 

OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD, por- 
trait, 35; founds Georgia, 35. 

Ohio, history of, 192; and woman suffrage, 
473- 

Ohio Company, 99. 

Oklahoma, history of, 407-408; Indians 
.in. 414. 

"Old Ironsides," 199. 

Old South Meeting House, 113. 

Omnibus Bill, 267. 

"Open-door," in China, 367-368. 

Ordinance of 17871 i54- 



Oregon, explored, 188; claim of the 
United States to, 188-189. 260; history 
of, 235; settlement of, 260; and woman 
suffrage, 473- 

Oregon trail, route followed by, 18-19; 
travel along. 261. 

Oriskany, battle of, 129. 

"Outlook," 424. 

PACn^IC OCEAN, discovered by Balboa, 

ID. 

Paine, Thomas, author of "Common 
Sense," 122-123. 

Panama, Isthmus of, crossed by Balboa, 
10; Republic of. 365. 

Panama Canal, 363-366. 428. 

Panama-Pacific Exposition, 346. 

Pan-American Congress, 376-377- 

Pan-American Exposition, 346. 

Pan-American Union, 377. 

Panic, of 1837, 226-227; of 1873, 332- 
333; of 1893. 341- 

Parcel Post, 354. 

Parliament, power of. 4; becomes Puritan, 
28; compels Charles I to sign Petition 
of Right, 40; repeals the Stamp Act, in; 
appealed to by First Continental Con- 
gress, 115- 

Parties, origin of, 177-178. 

Pastimes, in the colonies, 70-71. 73-74- 

Patents, 448. 

Patroon system, 51. 7o; estates broken up, 
229. 

Paulus Hook, captured by Lee, I3S- 

Payne-Aldrich Act, 353, 355- 

Peasants, European before 1500, i. 

Peninsular Campaign, 206-297- 

Penn, William, and the Duke of York, 54; 
obtains control of Delaware, 55-56; early 
life, 58; portrait, 59; settles Pennsyl- 
vania, 59-60. 

Pennsylvania, religious toleration in, 59; 
settlement of, 59-60; University of, 77- 

"Pennsylvania Packet," earliest daily 
paper in the colonies, 78. 

Pennsylvania Railroad, 391. 

Perry, Commodore Matthew C, visits 
Japan, 253- 

Perry, Captain Oliver H., defeats the 
British. 197- 

Perryville, battle of. 296. 

Pershing, General John J., home of. 217; 
portrait. 402; in Mexico, 402; at the 
tomb of Lafayette. 460; commands 
American armies in France. 464. 

Peru, discovered by Pizarro. 11. 

"Pet Banks," 226. 

Petersburg, siege of. 309- 

Petition of Right, 40. 

Philadelphia, founded. 60; menaced by 
the British, 126; abandoned by British, 
132; celebrating the adoption of the 
Constitution, 159- 

'Philippines, annexation of, 362; education 
in. 368-369; government of, 369. 

Photography, invention of, 248. 

Pickens, Andrew, defends the South in 
the Revolution, 138. 

Picketing, 386. 

Pickett, General George E., at Gettys- 
burg, 302. 



552 



THE INDEX 



Pierce, Franklin, president, 269; portrait, 

270. 
Pike, Zebulon, portrait, 189; western 

expedition of, 189. 
Pilgrims, flee to Holland, 38; to America, 

38. 
Piracy, before 1500, i; in colonial times, 92. 
Pitcairn, Major John, at the battle of 

Lexington, 117. 
Pitcher, Mollie, in the Revolution, 147. 
Pitt, William, English statesman, 102-103, 

108; portrait, 102; consults Franklin, 

115-1 16. 
Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 295- 
Pizarro, Francisco, Spanish explorer in 

Peru, II. 
Planters, how they lived, 86-87; after 

the Civil War, 320-321. 
Piatt Amendment, 362. 
Plymouth, founded, 38; government of, 

40; joins the New England Confedera- 
tion, 40. 
Plymouth Company, given a charter, 23. 
Poe, Edgar Allen, 241. 
Poles, immigration of, 379. 
Polk, James K, portrait, 260; president, 

259-260; and the Oregon question, 262. 
Polygamy, 382, 407. 
Ponce de Leon, explores Florida, 10. 
Pope, head of the clergy, 3; divides world 

between Spain and Portugal, 9. 
Pope, General John, at second battle of 

Bull Run, 297. 
"Popular sovereignty," 273. 276. 
Population, growth of, 165, 230, 404. 
Populism, 340. 
Port Bill, 113. 
Porter, David, commander of the "Essex," 

199. 
Porter, Gene Stratton, 423. 
Portland, world's fair at, 346. 
Porto Rico, discovered by Columbus, 8; 

invaded by General Miles, 360; annex- 
ation of, 362. 
Port Royal, Florida, founded by Hugue- 
nots, 14. 
Port Royal, Newfoundland, see .4 nnapolis. 
Portsmouth, Rhode Island, founded, 48. 
Portugal, discovers new route to India, 6; 

refuses to help Columbus, 7. 
Postal Savings Banks, 353. 
Potatoes, found in America, 15. 
Presbyterians, in the Carolinas, 33; at 

the time of the Revolution, 167; colleges 

of, 239- 
Prescott, Colonel William, at the battle of 

Bunker Hill, 118. 
President, how nominated, 221; how 

elected, 157, 161, 337; powers of, 161, 300. 
Presidential Preference Primary, 395. 
Price, General Stirling, at battle of luka, 

296. 
Price control, 469. 
Primary Elections, 394-395. 
Princeton, battle of, 127. 
Princeton College, 77. 
Printing Press, invention of, 248. 
Prisons, reform of, 243. 
Privateers, fitted out in French ports, 130; 

in the Revolution, 133-134; in the War 

of 1812, 199; Confederate, 293-294. 



"Proclamation of Neutrality," 178. 

Production, direct and indirect, 440-441. 

Progressive party, 355-356. 

Prohibition, 245, 470-471. 

Prohibition party, 332. 

Providence, foimded, 48. 

Pulaski, Count Casimir, joins the Ameri- 
can army, 127. 

Punishment, colonial, 82; grows more 
humane, 243. 

Puritan Revolution, 41, 43. 

Puritans, arise in England, 27-28, 37; 
migrate to Virginia, 28; in Massachu- 
setts, 41-42. 

Put-in-Bay, battle of, io7- 

Putnam, General Israel, at the battle of 
Bunker Hill, 118. 

QUAKERS, persecuted in Virginia, 29; in 
the Carolinas, 33; in Massachusetts, 44; 
in Rhode Island, 44; persecuted in New 
Netherland, 52; buy New Jersey, S7; 
their origin and teachings, 57-58; op- 
posed to war, 124. 

Quebec, founded. 95; captured by British, 
104; expedition against, 120. 

Queen Anne's War, 98. 

RAILROADS, beginning of, 210-21 1; 
growth of, 250-251, 439; and immigra- 
tion, 378; combinations of, 391; under 
government control, 460-461. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, portrait, 15; sends 
colonies to America, 15. 

"Rebate," 337. 

Recall, 355, 396. 

Reciprocity, 428. 

Reclaiming Waste Lands, 352. 

Reconstruction, Lincoln and Johnson's 
plan. 326. 

Red Cross, in the World War, 457. 

"Redemptioners," 67. 

Referendum, 355, 396. 

Reformation, in Europe, 37. 

Regulating Act, 113. 

Religious Denominations, in Virginia, 29; 
in Maryland. 30; in the Carolinas, 33; 
in Georgia, 36; in England, 37; in Massa- 
chusetts, 44; in New Netherland, 52; in 
New Jersey, 57; in the colonies, 79-80; 
at the time of the Revolution, 167; in the 
West, 243; and the World War, 470. 

Religious toleration, in Maryland, 31; in 
Georgia, 36; in Holland, 38, 50; in Massa- 
chusetts, 44; growth of, 44; in 'Rhode 
Island, 48; in New York, 54; in New 
Jersey, 57; in Pennsylvania, 59; in New 
France, ids; in Ordinance of 1787, 154; 
at the time of the Revolution, 167; in 
the Constitution, 167. 

Representative Government, established 
in Virginia, 26. 

Representatives, how elected, 160. 

Republican convention of 1912, 355, 356. 

Republican party, origin of, 178; break-up 
of. 22s; origin of new, 275. 

Revere, Paul, Revolutionary hero, n2, 113' 

1 17. 
."Review of Reviews," 424. 

Revolution, American, 107-144. 



THE INDEX 



553 



Rhode Island, refuge of Roger Williams, 
42; obtains charter, 48; settled, 48; gives 
up old charter, 229. 

Rice, the leading product of South Carolina, 
.34- 

Richmond, Confederate capital, 289; sur- 
render of, 315. 

Riley, James Whitcomb, 214, 422. 

Robertson, James, settles Watauga, 136. 

Rochambeau, Count de, at Yorktown, 143. 

Rockefeller, John D., 391- 

Rockingham, Lord, English statesman, 1 1 1 ; 
favors America, 132; recalled, 144. 

Rocky Mountains, location and size, 18. 

Rolfe, John, raises the first crop of tobacco, 
26. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, lieutenant-colonel of 
the "Rough Riders," 360; president, 
348-350; portrait, 349; and conserva- 
tion, 351; candidate of the Progressive 
party, 355-356; and the Panama Canal, 
36s; favors peace meetings, 373; and the 
Venezuela debts, 374. 

Rosecrans, General William S., succeeds 
Buell, 296; at Lookout Mountain, 305. 

"Rough Riders," 360. 

Roumanians, immigration of, 379. 

Roxbury, founded, 41. 

Rush-Bagot Treaty, 202. 

Russell, Irwin, 422. 

Russia, and Alaska, 260; at war with 
Japan, 349-350; in the World War, 450, 
462. 

Russians, immigration of, 379. 

Rutgers College, 77- 

ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida, settled by 
Spanish, 12; destroys French colony at 
Port Royal, 14. 

St. Lawrence, explored by Cartier, 13. 

St. Leger, Colonel Barry, at battle of 
Oriskany, 128-129. 

St. Louis, founded, 217; world's fair at, 346. 

St. Mary's, first colony in Maryland, 30; 
captured by the Puritans, 32. 

St. Mihiel, Americans at, 464. 

"Salary grab," 33i- 

Salem, founded, 41. 

Salzburgers, in Georgia, 36. 

Samoa, annexation of, 367. 

San Francisco, world's fair at, 346. 

Sanitary Commission, 318. 

San Juan Hill, battle of, 360. 

San Salvador, discovered by Columbus, 8. 

Santa Fe, New Mexico, 12, 409. 

Santa Fe Railroad, 409-410. 

Santa Fe trail, route followed, 18-19; in 
the Mexican War, 264. 

Santiago, battle of, 360-361. 

Santo Domingo, 374-375. 

Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender, 129. 

Savannah, founded, 36; captured by Biit- 
ish, 137; captured by Sherman, 313; 

"Savannah" first ocean steamship, 252. 

Scalawags, 329. 

Schools, "Dame," 75; colonial, 75-76; high, 
238, 415-416; elementary, 415; kinder- 
garten, 415; consolidated, 416-417; nor- 
mal, 417; compulsory attendance of, 417; 
medical inspection in, 421; see also Edu- 
cation. 



Schuyler, General Philip, opposes Bur • 
goyne, 129; succeeded by Gates, 129. 

Science, and farming, 431; and manufac- 
turing, 439- 

Scotch Highlanders, in the Carolinas, 33; 
in Georgia, 36. 

Scotch-Irish, in the Carolinas, 33; in the 
colonies, 65-66; during the French and 
Indian Wars, 99. 

Scott, General Winfield, ordered to Charles- 
ton, 256; in the Mexican War, 263-264. 

Scrooby, England, home of the Pilgrims, 38. 

Seal Fisheries Arbitration, 369. 

Seattle, world's fair at, 346. 

Secession, South threatens, 267; of first 
group of states, 282; right of, 282-283. 

Seminary Ridge, 302. 

Senators, how elected, 157, 160, 397. 

Separatists, in England, 37; become Pil- 
grims, 38. 

"Serapis," captured by John Paul Jones, 
133- 

Serbia, in the World War, 450, 

"Seven Days" battle, 297. 

"Seventh of March Speech," 268. 

Seven Years' War, 102. 

Sevier, John, famous Indian fighter, 136. 

Seward, William H., and the "higher law," 
269. 

Sewing machine, invention of, 248. 

Shakers, rise of, 167. 

Shays's Rebellion, 155. 

"Shenandoah," Confederate cruiser, 313. 

Shenandoah Valley, defended by Wash- 
ington, 102; in the Civil War, 297; Early 
in, 310; Sheridan in, 310. 

Sheridan, General Philip H., at Vicksburg, 
304; in the Shenandoah, 310; cuts off 
Lee's supplies, 314. 

Sherman, Roger, in First Continental Con- 
gress, 114. 

Sherman, General William T., at Lookout 
Mountain, 305; at Atlanta, 311; marches 
to the sea, 313. 

Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 392. 

Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 344. 

Shiloh, battle of, 295. 

Ships and shipping, colonial, 89; develop- 
ment of, 429; in the World War, 458. 

Silver, coining of, 343-344. 346-348. 

Sitting Bull, Indian chief, 412. 

Slater, Samuel, brings new machines to 
America, 170. 

Slavery, colonial, 26, 92; in Ordinance of 
1787, 154; at the time of the Revolution, 
168; and the new territory, 217, 265; and 
the Louisiana Purchase, 218; description 
of, 256-257; and California, 266; in the 
far West, 267; and the Kansas question, 
272-275; in the war, 299; Lincoln's atti- 
tude toward, 299; see Emancipation. 

Slaves, brought to America by Dutch, 26. 

Slavs, immigration of, 379. 

Slidell, John, Confederate commissioner to 
France, 292. 

Smith, John, leader of the colony at James- 
town, 24. 

Smith, Joseph, Mormon leader, 236. 

SmuggUng, 92, 109, 193- 

Social classes, in Europe, i, 2, 3; in Amer- 
ica, 63, 66-68, 166. 



554 



THE INDEX 



Socialism, 399-400. 

Socialist party, 400. 

"Society for the Promotion of Arts, Agri- 
culture and Economy," 169. 

"Sons of Liberty," 109. 112. 

South, industry in, 254. 443, 447; secedes 
from the Union, 282; strength of, 290. 

South Africa, gold discovered in, 348. 

South America, discovered by Columbus, 8 ; 
struggles for independence, 218; relations 
of the United States with, 377 ; trade with 
427-428. 

South Carolina, leads in secession, 282. 

South Dakota, 405- 

"Southern Literary Messenger," 242. 

Southern Pacific Railroad, 409-410. 

Spain, early explorations of, 10; begins to 
decline, 12, 16; methods of conquest, 
13; joins in war against England. 132; 
attempts to close the Mississippi, 153, 
173. 186; and South American inde- 
pendence, 218; colonies of, 218, 357; 
war with, 359-36i. 

Spaniards, attack Charleston, 33; attack 
Frederica, 36. 

"Specie Circular," 227. 

Spottsylvania, battle of, 309. 

Springfield, capital of Illinois, 215. 

Stamford, founded, 47. 

Stamp Act, 109-1 11. 

Stamp Act Congress, no. 

Standard Oil Company, 391. 

Standish, Myles, 38. 

Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 472. 

Stark, General John, at the battle of Bun- 
kei Hill, 118; at battle of Bennington, 
129. 

State governments, oiigm of, 94- 

States' Rights, 183, 202. 

State Universities, founding of, 239-240; 
growth of, 417. 

Steamboat, invention of, 206; on the rivers, 
206; crosses the Atlantic, 252. 

Steel, manufacture of, 445-446. 

Stephens, Alexander H., favors the Union, 
282; becomes vice-president of the 
confederacy, 283; portrait, 284; at 
the Hampton Roads Conference, 310. 

Steuben, Baron William von, at Valley 
Forge, 128. 

Stockton, Frank R., 423. 

Stone, Lucy, 472. 

Stony Point, captured by " Mad Anthony" 
Wayne, I3S- 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 270. 

Strikes, 385-387; after the World War, 
468. 

Stuart, General J. E. B., destroys Union 
supplies, 297- 

Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New Nether- 
land, 52-53; forced to surrender New 
Netherland, 53. 

Submarines, 451, 453. 

Suffrage, in Virginia, 29; growth of, 221, 
229, 243, 328, 331, 471-474. 

Sugar Act, 108. 

Sullivan, General John, expedition against 
the Indians, 134. 

Sumter, Thomas, m the Revolution, 138- 
139- 

"Sumter," confederate cruiser, 313. 



Sumter, Fort, surrender of, 287. 
Swedes, immigration of, 378. 
Swiss, in the Carolinas, 33. 

TAFT, WILLIAM HOWARD, portrait. 
353; president, 353; and the Progres- 
sive movement, 355. 

Tariff, Hamilton's, 176; after War of 1812, 
203, 212; and manufactures, 247; a 
sectional question, 254-255; and the 
Civil War, 323; McKinley, 339; and 
the Wilson Bill, 341; Underwood, 401; 
Dingley, 347; and the Payne-Aldrich 
Act, 353- 

Tarleton, Colonel Sir Banastre, sent to 
defeat Greene, 140-141. 

Taylor, General Zachary, portrait, 262; 
in the Mexican War, 263; president, 

^265. 

Tea, tax on, 112. 

Tecumseh, 22; death of, 197. 

Telegraph, invention of, 249-250. 

Tennessee, first settlements, 136; history 
of, 191; secedes from the Union, 289. 

"Tennessee," guards Mobile Bay, 312. 

Texas, 233; revolution in, 259; annexation 
of, 260; secedes from the Union, 2S2. 

Thames, battle of, 197. 

Thanksgiving, the first, 39- 

Thomas, General Geoige H., at battle of 
Murfreesboro, 296; at battle of Chick- 
amauga. 305; at Nashville, 314. 

Ticonderoga, captured by Americans, 120; 
captured by British. 164. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 197. 214. 

Tobacco, taken to England, 15; culti- 
vated in Virginia, 26; breaks up feudal- 
ism in Maryland, 31. 

Toleration, Act of, 31, see also Religious 
toleration. 

Tories, in England, 108, 116, 143; in 
America, 120, 123, 134. 

Toronto, burned by Americans. 200. 

Trade Routes, Eastern, cut by Turks, s; 
map of. 6. 

Transportation, colonial, 91 ; at the Revolu- 
tion, 171-174; in the West, 207; mod- 
ern, 432-434- 

Travel, colonial, 91; at the close of the 
Revolution, 174; in the West, 207; to the 
far West. 261, 266. 

"Trent Affair," 292. 

Trenton, battle of, 126-127. 

Trumbull, Faith, in the Revolution, 147. 

Trusts, 390-393. 

Turkey, in the World War, 450, 465. 

Turks, close routes to East, 5; iinmigration 
of, 379- 

Tutuila, annexation of, 367. 

Twain, Mark, see Clemens, Samuel L. 

Tweed Ring, 3ii- 

Tyler, John, president, 228-229. 

"UNCLE TOM'S CABIN," 270. 

"Underground Railroad," 270. 

Underwood Tariff, 401. 

Union Pacific Railroad, 407. 

Unions, see Labor Unions. 

Unitarians, at the time of the Revolution, 

167. 
United Hatters of North America, 387. 



THE INDEX 



555 



"United States," captures the " Mace- 
donian." 

United States Bank, created, 176; destroyed 
by Jackson, 226. 

United States, extent of.in 1783, 144; breaks 
with Germany, 453-454. 

United States Steel Corporation, 391. 

Universalists, at the time of the Revolution, 
167. 

Universities and colleges, growth of, 239. 

Utah, 407; and woman suffrage, 473. 



VACA, CABEZA DE, in New Mexico, 409. 

Valley Forge, 128. 

Van Buren, Martin, portrait ,227; president , 

227. 
Vandeibilt, Cornelius, 391. 
Venezuela, arbitration, 371, 374. 
Venice, trade routes of, 5. 
Vermont, 189-190. 

Verrazano, Giovanni da, explorer, 13. 
Versailles, Treaty of, 466. 
Vespucius, Americus, names America, 10. 
Vicksburg, siege of, 303-304. 
Villa, Francisco, Mexican bandit, 402-403. 
Vincennes, captured by George Rogers 

Clark, 137. 
Virginia, named by Queen Elizabeth, 15; 

receives a new charter, 24 ; growth of to 

1660, 28; University of, 240; secedes from 

the Union, 289. 
Virgin Islands, purchase of, 403. 
Vocational training, 418. 



"WAIT-A-BIT TREATIES," 374, 402. 

Walpole, Robert, English statesman, 98. 

"War Hawks," 194. 

War of 1812, 196-203. 

"War powers," of the president, 161-162, 
300. 

Warren, General Joseph, at the battle of 
Bunker Hill. 118. 

War Savings Stamps, 461. 

Warwick, founded, 48. 

Washington, George, orders the French 
from the Ohio Valley, 99-100; defends 
the frontier, 102; takes command of the 
army, 119; at Trenton and Princeton, 
126-127; at Valley Forge, 128; at York- 
town, 142-143; retires to Mount Vernon, 
144-145; resigns as Commander-in-Chief, 
145; favors a stronger government, 152; 
at the Constitutional Convention, 155; 
first president, 174-175; death of, 180. 

Washington, D. C, burned by British, 201. 

Washington, state, history of, 406; and 
woman suffrage, 473. 

Washingtonians, 245. 

Watauga, settled, 136. 

Watertown, founded, 41. 

Wayne, Anthony, captures Stony Point, 135 

Wealth, national, 430. 

Webster, Daniel, Whig leader, 226; defends 
the Union, 255; in the Great Debate, 268; 
death of, 269. 

Webster-Hayne Debate, 255. 



Welfare work, 390. 

Wesley, Charles, settles in Georgia, 36. 

Wesley, John, settles in Georgia, 36. 

West, settlement of, 204-205, 207-208, 213. 

Western front, in the World War, 462. 

Western lands, given to the Confederation, 
153- 

Western Reserve, 153. 

West Indies, trade with, 108, 109. 

West Virginia, becomes a state, 289; his- 
tory of, 324. 

Wethersfield, founded, 47. 

Weyler, General, Spanish commander in 
Cuba, 358. 

Whig Party, new name of National Repub- 
licans, 22s; death of, 269. 

Whigs, in England, iii. 

Whitefield, George, settles in Georgia, 36; 
great colonial preacher, 81. 

White House Landing, battle of, 297- 

White Plains, battle of, 125. 

Whitman, Dr. Marcus, missionary to Ore- 
gon, 261. 

Whitman, Walt, 423. 

Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin, 170. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, 241. 

Wilderness campaign, 309. 

Wilderness Road, 190. 

William II, Emperor of Germany, 454-455, 
465. 

William HI, King of England, grants new 
charter to Massachusetts, 46; grants 
New York an assembly, 55. 

William and Mary College, 76. 

Williams, Roger, flees to Rhode Island, 42; 
founds Providence, 48. 

Wilmot Proviso, 265. 

Wilson, Woodrow, president, 356, 401; 
portrait, 401; and neutrality, 45i;elected 
for second term, 453; in Europe, 466. 

Wilson Bill, 341. 

Winchester, battle of, 310. 

Windsor, founded, 47. 

Winthrop, John, portrait, 41; governor of 
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 41. 

Wisconsin, 234. 

Wister, Owen, 423. 

Witchcraft, in the colonies, 82. 

Wolfe, James, British general, 103; por- 
trait, 103. 

Woman Suffrage, 127, 149, 243, 471-474. 

Women, in the Revolution, 146-147; edu- 
cation of, 166, 239, 421. 

Wood, Leonard, colonel of the "Rough 
Riders," 360. 

Workingmen's Compensation, 389. 

World's Fairs, 345-346. 

"World's Work," 424. 

Woild War, 450-468; causes, 450; United 
States enters. 456; end of, 465; cost of, 
466; effects of, 468. 

Wright, Frances, 471. 

Wright, Martha C, 472. 

Wright, Orville, and the airplane, 447. 

Wright, Wilbur, and the airplane, 447. 

Writs of Assistance, 109. 

Wyoming, history of, 406, 407; and woman 
suffrage, 472-473. 

Wyoming Valley, massacre of, i34- 



556 



THE INDEX 



YALE COLLEGE, founded, 76; welcomes Yorktown, battle of, 142-143. 

Washington, 119. Young, Brigham, Mormon leader, 23O. 

Yancey, William L., portrait, 216; south- Y. M. C. A., in the World War, 457. 

em orator, 216. Y. W. C. A., in the World War, 457. 

Yeardley, Sir George, governor of Virginia, Yukon, gold discovered on, 344-34f. 

26. 
Yellow fever, 365-366. 

York, Duke of, given New York, S4- ZENGER, PETER, arrest of, 79. 



HISTORY OF INDIANA 

EARLY INDIANA 

1. The Indian and the Frenchman in early Indiana. 

For a long time the region now called Indiana had been 
a battle ground between hostile tribes of Indians. The 
principal tribes were the Potawatomis, Miamis, Dela- 
wares, Wyandottes, and Shawnees. 

La Salle, on his journey to the westward, crossed 
from the St. Joseph to the Kankakee. His Indian com- 
panions carried the canoes and supplies upon their backs 
from one river to the other. This narrow strip of land 
separating the two rivers, only a few miles in width, was 
called a "portage," or carrying place. The French and 
Indians traveled together in happy companionship, eating 
and sleeping together as if they had known each other 
for centuries. Sometimes the Frenchmen were travehng 
for pure love of what they could see in this wild, beauti- 
ful land ; more often they were in pursuit of furs, gather- 
ing them from the Indians. Very often in the front rank 
of those "wood rangers" was the kindly priest with his 
cross and altar, trying to win the dusky children of the 
forest to the gentle ways of Jesus. 

2. French settlements in Indiana. A hundred years 
before the Revolutionary War the French and Indians of 
the Mississippi Valley lived as boon companions among 
its hills, valleys, and lakes. Not many French women 
ventured from far-away France into this western wilder- 
ness. The French, therefore, took for life companions 
the dusky maidens of the forests, and raised large 
families, half French and half Indian, called half-breeds. 



2 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

To protect the fur trade from the attacks of the Brit- 
ish, and to encourage the missionary work of the Jesuit 
fathers, the French ordered three forts or posts to be buih : 
one on the upper Wabash at the Maumee portage, near 
where Fort Wayne now stands; a second on the northern 
bank of the Wabash below the mouth of the Tippecanoe, 
called Ouaitenon (He-at'-e-non) (1720), and a third at 
Vincennes, on the lower Wabash (1727). The first two 
.were in time abandoned. 

3. The English take the place of the French. Before 
the breaking out of the American Revolution the French 
and Indians had been in deadly conflict with the Brit- 
ish in the French and Indian War. The result of this 
war was the passing of French authority over to the 
Enghsh (1763). This was a sad blow for the French 
and Indians. 

INDIANA IN THE REVOLUTION 

4. George Rogers Clark plans an expedition (1778). 

The causes of the American Revolution can be studied 
elsewhere (§§179-188). The Indians had joined hands 
with the British, and were scalping and murdering the 
settlers of Kentucky. George Rogers Clark, a Virginian 
living in Kentucky, thought out the bold plan of stopping 
this attack by the capture of the British forts northwest 
of the Ohio. 

He made his way to Virginia and saw Governor Patrick 
Henry, who gave both authority and money for the 
expedition, for Virginia claimed this vast region north 
of the Ohio. One hundred and fifty men met him at 
Fort Pitt and floated down the beautiful Ohio to the 
Falls. Here Clark drilled his men on Corn Island, left 
a few families to settle Louisville, then floated down to 



INDIANA IN THE REVOLUTION 3 

the mouth of the Tennessee and marched overland to 
Kaskaskia. 

5. Clark surprises Kaskaskia. On July 4th, Clark's 
men surprised the British and took possession of the 
town. Clark sent a band of men to capture Cahokia 
and a French priest to carry the news to his countrymen 
at Vincennes. They ran up the American flag, and 
Clark sent Captain Helm to take command. 

The British at Detroit under Hamilton heard the news 
and promptly set out with five hundred men for Vin- 
cennes. They floated down Lake Erie to the mouth 
of the Maumee, "poled" up the river to the portage, 
and crossed to the headwaters of the Wabash. Down 
that river came swarms of Indians and British and cap- 
tured the fort. 

6. Clark attacks Vincennes. Francis Vigo, in whose 
honor Vigo County was named, carried the word to 
General Clark. The war spirit of Clark immediately 
flamed forth in these words: "I must take Hamilton 
or Hamilton will take me!" Hamilton had decided to 
wait for spring before advarlcing, but Clark did not wait 
for wind or weather. His little army, reenforced by the 
French settlers, was on the march at once. They suffered 
untold hardships in marching through the "drowned 
lands" of the Wabash. 

Clark sent a letter to the people of the town. He 
advised all who were friends to remain quietly indoors 
and all who were enemies to go to the fort and cast in 
their fortunes with the "hair buyer," as the backwoods- 
men called Hamilton. At evening the battle began, 
and continued until the next day. By their sharp fire 
the Americans drove the British from the guns of the 
fort, and Hamilton surrendered. 



4 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

7. The results of Clark's work. Thus the "Old 
Northwest" fell to the United States, and the Missis- 
sippi became the western boundary of the United States 
by the Treaty of 1783 (§236). 

The Indians were so deeply impressed with Clark's 
great power they gave him a grant of land at the Falls 
of the Ohio. Virginia afterwards agreed to this grant 
to the old hero and his brave men. The counties of 
Scott, Clark, and Floyd are situated in "Clark's Grant." 
Virginia organized (1787) the region northwest of the 
Ohio into a territory, and sent men to govern it. Into 
this region came Clark's old soldiers, a bit later, to make 
homes for themselves and for their wives and their 
children. 

INDIANA UNDER ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 

8. Virginia gives this region to the United States. 

The state of Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, and 
Benjamin Harrison gave this vast region northwest of 
the Ohio to the United States. This gift included the 
present states of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, 
and Ohio, since known as the "Old Northwest." But 
the Indians were still in an ugly state of mind. They had 
sided with the British, and had been beaten. Besides, 
the whites were invading and destroying their hunting 
grounds. The British still held Detroit and other posts 
in the territory, and were selling arms to the savages, 
if not encouraging them. Kentucky was the greatest 
sufferer, for she lost two thousand men, women, and 
children taken captive by the savages. General Clark 
raised one thousand men, invaded the upper Wabash 
region, and burned the Indians' towns. This settled 
things for a time. 



WORKING OUT INDIANA S 

9. The Ordinance of 1787. In the very last days of 
the Confederation, Congress passed a famous bill, called 
the Ordinance of 1787, for the government of the terri- 
tory given by Virginia. This ordinance has brought 
great honor to its authors because it contains two pro- 
visions: One dedicated this entire region to freedom 
by declaring that slavery should be forever prohibited, 
and the other dedicated it to education by providing 
that "the means of education should be forever encour- 
aged." On the basis of this second provision the state 
of Indiana has built the foundation of her splendid 
system of free schools. 

WORKING OUT INDIANA 

10. Washington sends Wayne against the Indians. 

The Indians did not long refrain from killing and 
scalping. General Harmar was defeated by the red men, 
and General St. Clair suffered more dreadful surprise 
and slaughter at their hands. Washington was aroused 
and ordered "Mad Anthony" Wayne to the rescue. He 
gathered an army of about four thousand and marched 
to the headwaters of the Maumee and Auglaize rivers, 
where he built Fort Defiance. He was now in the 
Indian country. The Indians held a council, and Little 
Turtle, a great chief, advised them to make peace, but 
the young warriors wanted to fight. The chief called 
Wayne the "Man-who-never-sleeps." 

The battle came. Wayne broke the power of the 
Indians, destroyed their crops, burned their villages, 
and boldly marched to the head of the Maumee. Here 
he built Fort Wayne (1794). In the year following 
Wayne made a treaty with the Indians which gave much 
land to the government at Washington. 



6 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

11. Government begun (1790). Governor St. Clair, 
appointed by Washington, began his government over 
the Northwest Territory at Marietta, but soon moved to 
a fort on the Ohio, where Cincinnati now stands. He 
visited Clarksville and Kaskaskia, and sent his secretary 
to Vincennes. The secretary planned the government 
of Knox County and examined the people's titles to the 
land. In 1798 the territorial legislature elected William 
Henry Harrison to Congress, where he had the right to 
speak but not to vote. 

12. Indiana Territory set off (1800). The southern 
boundary of this new region was the Ohio west of the 
mouth of the Miami River. The eastern boundary ran 
from the Ohio at this point north to the Canadian line. 
Its western line was the Mississippi River. The seat of 
government was at Vincennes, a place where many an 
interesting event took place. The new territory, it is 
estimated, contained over forty-eight hundred people, 
mostly French, with a few Americans and Spaniards. 
The first grand jury called for this territory was made up 
chiefly of persons bearing French names. This was new 
business for Frenchmen, for the French had never sat 
on juries. General Harrison was appointed governor 
by John Adams, President of the United States. 

13. The second stage of territorial government (1804). 
The people were excited, in 1804, over a kind of govern- 
ment which would permit them to select their own 
representatives. They decided to change, and Harrison 
immediately called an election to choose men for an 
assembly. The Assembly met at Vincennes (1805) and 
selected a council for the governor. 

It is interesting to note that in his first message to 
this body of representatives Harrison advised them to 



EARLIEST INDIANA SETTLEMENTS 7 

pass a law to stop the sale of liquor to the Indians. A 
sober Indian was peaceable enough when not on the war 
path, but was dangerous when drunk. In 1809 the terri- 
tory of Indiana was reduced almost to its present size by 
act of Congress. In this year the number of whites within 
the territory had reached a total of about twenty thousand. 

THE EARLIEST SETTLEMENTS IN INDIANA 

14. Clarksville in Clark's Grant at the Falls of the 
Ohio. It is hard to say just where the first Englishmen 
settled in Indiana. We know that Frenchmen were early 
at Vincennes, and until Virginia gave that country to the 
United States, we believe that some EngHshmen must 
have wandered to "Old Vincennes." 

But Clarksville, named after the hero of Vincennes, 
situated at the Falls between what is now Jeffersonville 
and New Albany, was settled by Americans. The town, 
a thousand acres in extent, was marked off by Virginia 
in 1783. A letter written the next year states that 
"General Clark has laid off a town on the other side of 
the Ohio .... at the mouth of Silver Creek and is 

building a saw and grist mill there Twenty or 

thirty families have moved there already." 

Settlers were attracted to the town not only because 
it was in Clark's Grant but because Fort Steuben stood 
there ready to protect them by its guns and walls. 
Clarksville became the county seat, but was afterward 
succeeded by Charlestown. Finally, at a later day, 
Jeffersonville succeeded to that honor. The last-named 
town was laid out in 1802, following a plan which Thomas 
Jefferson had approved, and in 1807 Congress estabhshed 
here a land office. Such an office had been in operation 
at Vincennes for some time. 



8 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

15. Early settlements in southeastern Indiana. In 

Switzerland County the town of Vevay makes a strong 
bid as among the earhest settlements in that part of the 
state. Only two or three miles above Vevay a family by 
the name of Picket settled in 1795. The next year came 
two persons from Switzerland, in Europe, selected the 
site of Vevay, purchased land from the government, and 
in 1803 brought settlers from Switzerland. 

Not far from where Aurora now stands a mill was built 
in 1800. There must have been settlers in this region 
before that date, for in 1807 the town of Lawrenceburg 
was marked out and in the year following Dearborn was 
set off into a county. 

16. Other early settlements. Nearly all of these first 
settlers were from the southern states. Woolsey Pride 
settled near White Oak Springs, Pike County, in 1800, 
and the next year a goodly company from Kentucky 
joined him. By the time Harrison made his famous 
campaign against the Prophet, a number of settlers from 
Pike County joined his forces. 

In 1802 two of the Boones from Kentucky settled in 
Grassy Valley, a few miles back from the Ohio in Harrison 
County. They were joined by men who became famous 
in Indiana history — Thomas Posey and Davis Floyd. 
General Harrison bought a farm at Wilson's Spring near 
Blue River, and upon it built a fine mill about 1806. 
In this county in 1808 a ferry was estabHshed at Mauck- 
port to carry the many settlers crossing the Ohio from 
Kentucky. In the same year Cory don, soon to be the 
capital of the state, was settled. Brookville was laid out 
about 1804. 

Settlers were beginning to press into the second tier 
of counties, where game was more plentiful. John 



EARLIEvST INDIANA SETTLEMENTS 9 

Kimberlin, leading a party of hunters in 1805, settled on 
Kimberlin Creek in Scott County. On this farm was 
located the blockhouse mentioned later in the War of 18 12. 
In 1 8 10 the town of Lexington, for many years the county 
seat, was laid out. A bank and a paper were founded a 
bit later. One of the most famous of the men settling 
Lexington was Elisha G. English, whose grandson, 
William E. English, has turned the old homestead into a 
beautiful park so that now it stands as one of the historical 
landmarks of old Lexington. 

The year 1805 seemed -a favorite, for another company 
of Kentucky settlers came over to Warwick County and 
settled. Among them was Ratliff Boone, whose name is 
preserved in the town of Booneville and Boone township. 

Settlers in 1806 made their way into what is now 
Daviess County and located at Maysville. This place 
was far out in the region exposed to Indian attacks. 
But still the settlers came. Five forts were built to give 
the people protection, and during the War of 181 2 three 
others were added. Thus Daviess County, when set 
off from Knox (18 17), was noted for the number of its 
forts. 

The first settlers of Posey County came from Ken- 
tucky, Virginia, Carolina, and Pennsylvania about 1807. 
That wonderful old student of birds, Audubon, frequently 
visited Posey County. About the same time, Gibson 
County was found to furnish a fine home for people. 
Among them came Robert Evans, for whom Evansville 
was named. 

Because Colonel John Paul saw a heavy fog over the 
land at the Falls of the Ohio he concluded that Madison 
would be a better climate. Hence he located there just 
before the War of 181 2. 



10 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

About 1810 settlers were pushing up into Lawrence, 
Monroe, and Jackson counties. The people were moving 
steadily up the Whitewater, settHng in Fayette County 
(1813), Ripley (1814), Jennings (1815), and Randolph 
(18 1 6). After the war they pushed on into Hancock, 
Rush, and Shelby in 18 18. 

On the western side of the state settlers were moving 
up the Wabash and White rivers, and located in Spencer 
(18 1 5), at Gosport about the same date, at Terre Haute 
(1816), Greene County (1817), Morgan (1819), Ver- 
milion (1816), and Clinton (1818). 

17. New Harmony (18 15). The importance of this 
settlement calls for emphasis. George Rapp, a German 
from Pennsylvania, led eight hundred settlers fifty miles 
up the Wabash to a tract of thirty thousand acres, where 
he planted a religious community. They prospered, but 
sold out (1825) to a Scotchman, Robert Owen, who 
wanted to make the world better. He established free 
schools, and had well-regulated amusements: Friday 
evenings, concerts; Tuesday evenings, balls; Wednesday 
evenings, public meetings for discussion of subjects for 
the well-being of the community ; Thursday was the day 
of rest for the community. Eight months later one 
thousand people had joined the experiment. 

In 1826 Robert Dale Owen brought over his "boat- 
load of knowledge." There were great teachers and 
others who had come to New Harmony. This place now 
became the greatest center of teaching and investigation 
in America. The experiment failed, and the plan for 
making people better had to be given up, but to the 
present day in New Harmony there can be found, in the 
character of the people and in the institutions which sur- 
vive, many traces of the great men who labored there. 



THE WAR OF 1812 1 1 

How many boys and girls in Indiana can find traces of 
the Maclure Libraries, founded by William Maclure, a 
friend and fellow- worker with Owen? 

THE WAR OF 1812 

i8. Indiana in 1810. The settlements in Indiana 
down to 18 10 had brought twenty-four thousand five 
hundred people within its limits. They were mostly 
farmers and hunters. Besides these there were a number 
engaged in running grist and saw mills, and a few were 
engaged in the manufacture of goods. These men were a 
hardy race, quick-tempered, and ready to shoulder the 
rifle for an Indian war. 

19. Indian troubles. The Indians had not been 
satisfied with the treaties. Some chiefs had signed and 
others had not. Worse than all, they saw their hunting 
grounds fading away before the coming of the white man 
and his ways of living. 

The British still held some of the posts northwest of 
the Ohio, and the people of the region believed that they 
were stirring up the Indians to go on the war path. They 
certainly sold guns and ammunition to the Indians and 
encouraged them in their dissatisfaction with the treat- 
ment they received from the Americans. 

20. Tecumseh and the Prophet. Among the red men 
of Indiana lived a tribe called the Shawnees. Tecumseh 
and the Prophet were brothers belonging to this tribe, 
but had powerful influence over all the tribes of Indiana 
Indians. Tecumseh was a splendid-looking Indian, 
brave, a great orator, and he hated the whites with an 
undying hatred. He possessed noble ideas of the great- 
ness of the Indian race, and knew how to play upon 
the fears of his countrymen to rouse them to action. 



12 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

Tecumseh used the Prophet to stir the imagination 
of these excitable sons of the forests by teUing what things 
the Great Spirit would do for them. 

21. Tecumseh's visit to Governor Harrison. One 
day in August, 1810, Tecumseh, with four hundred armed 
braves, floated down the Wabash to Vincennes and paid 
General Harrison a visit. For several days this bold 
Indian held "powwows" with the governor. Then as 
they parted, Tecumseh said: "Well, as the Great Chief is 
to determine this matter, I hope the Great Spirit will put 
sense enough in his head to induce him to direct you to 
give up this land. He is far off and will not be injured 
by this war; he may sit still and drink his wine while 
you and I fight it out." 

22. Harrison sends the Prophet a letter. Tecumseh 
went south to draw other tribes into his confederacy to 
wrest the land from the white man. The Prophet was 
gathering the tribes on the upper Wabash. Harrison 
wrote them: "Brothers, do you really think that the 
handful of men you have about you are able to contend 
with the seventeen fires [states]? .... Brothers, I 
am myself of the long knife fire; as soon as they hear 
my voice you will see them pouring forth their swarms of 
hunting-shirt men, as numerous as the mosquitoes on the 
shores of the Wabash." 

23. The battle of Tippecanoe (181 1). The trouble 
kept up, and General Harrison called for the men of 
Indiana and Kentucky to join his forces at Vincennes. 
He marched up the Wabash a few miles above where 
Terre Haute now stands, and built Fort Harrison. After 
a few days he passed slowly up the river to the mouth of 
the Tippecanoe, watching out for an Indian ambush, and 
encamped on an elevated spot covered with oak trees. 



THE WAR OF 1812 



13 











Harrison's men "slept on their arms" that night. It was 
well they did so! Although the Prophet promised to 
parley with Harrison the 

next day, he gathered his -.^^ -. ,- < c^^rv 

braves, declaring that the 
bullets of the whites 
should not harm them. 
Chanting their war songs, 
they crept close to Harri- 
son's men and broke into 
the camp just before day- 
light on November 7th. 
The soldiers could hardly 
see how to fight at first, 
but when daylight came 
they drove the savages 
from the field, destroyed 
their town, and their Prophet was a prophet no longer. 
The Indians had lost faith in him. Tecumseh returned 
from the south, angry with his brother. He joined the 
British in the War of 181 2. Some of the Indians, it was 
said, fought with arms made in Britain. 

24. Tippecanoe battlefield in history. General John 
Tipton, a young ensign in this battle, afterward bought 
the battlefield and presented it to the state. (Tipton 
County bears his name as a memorial.) The people of 
Indiana have always taken pride in this battlefield. 
Here Harrison's old soldiers gathered to welcome him in 
1840. The people who came numbered fifty thousand or 
more. Both the state and the nation united in building a 
monument to the heroes who fought and fell here, each 
giving twelve thousand five hundred dollars. A Tippe- 
canoe Battle Ground Memorial Association was formed. 



i^pW^' 



TABLET MARKING "TREATY TREE" 



14 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

It was a great day (1908) when the monument was 
unveiled. Orators were there, and a relative of General 
Harrison, a representative of the state of Kentucky, the 
governor of Indiana, and a representative from the 
national government. The centennial of this battle was 
celebrated by a gathering of the school children of Tippe- 
canoe County on November 7, 191 1. 

25. The Pigeon Roost Massacre (1812). In Clark's 
Grant, in the western part of Scott County, stands 
another monument to the men, women, and children who 
fell under the fury of savage hate. Not far from where 
the town of Underwood now stands, two men were looking 
among the giant trees to catch sight of honey bees as they 
winged their silent way with the newly found sweetness 
to some hidden storehouse in that great forest. 

Suddenly the Indians were upon them, and attacked 
the Pigeon Roost settlement. Some of the people were 
killed fighting; others fought until night, then escaped in 
the darkness to give the alarm. But before the militia 
could arrive the Indians had made good their escape. 
By action of the legislature of Indiana a fine monument 
has been raised to commemorate the Pigeon Roost 
Massacre. 

26. Fort Wayne besieged (1812). In the same month 
the Potawatomis, led by their chief, Winamac, planned 
to take the fort by a trick. Winamac came to the fort 
for a powwow, and thought to have a large number of 
Indians admitted. Only thirteen were permitted to come 
in; the others waited. The Indians had agreed upon a 
signal — "I am a man." Winamac made the officers a 
long speech, and finally pronounced the words, "I am a 
man," but in the fort a great backwoodsman and Indian 
hunter immediately sprang to his feet, and striking his 



THE WAR OF 1812 15 

hand upon his belt cried, "I am a man, too!" This 
threw Winamac off his guard, and the Indians were 
turned out of the fort. They immediately attacked, but 
it was too late for a surprise. They kept it up day and 
night. They pretended to have cannon to storm the 
fort, but they were only hollow logs which were fired at 
the fort for "effect." Finally General Harrison arrived 
with reenforcements, and the Indians fled. Around the 
fort had clustered quite a little settlement of French 
and American families. They were saved by being taken 
into the fort, but lost their homes and other property. 

27. The last of the Indian attacks. A number of 
expeditions against the Indians on the upper Wabash and 
the Mississinewa took place. Generally the whites were 
victorious. General Harrison struck a deathblow at the 
Indians when his men killed Tecumseh and defeated the 
British in the battle of the Thames (18 13). This put 
an end to Indian attacks in large bodies. 

28. The Indiana blockhouse. Besides the forts built 
by the national government, many blockhouses could be 
found in Indiana a little more than a hundred years ago. 
These houses were built to protect the settlers against 
Indian attacks. They were made of hewn logs, generally of 
white oak, for which Indiana became famous. The house 
was usually two stories in height, and in the upper story 
were portholes for rifles. The trees were cut down for 
some distance around the fort so that no shelter would 
be afforded Indians in trying to surprise the settlers. 
When an Indian alarm was sounded the people hurried 
with their families to the nearest blockhouse for protec- 
tion. The writer when a boy saw one of these block- 
houses, then falling into ruins. It was located in Scott 
County, near the town of Nabb, on the farm of "Uncle 



l6 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

Ike" Kimberlin. Around it clustered many interesting 
stories of hairbreadth escapes which, through imagination, 
lost nothing in the telling. 

There was a blockhouse for almost every settlement in 
Indiana before the war closed. In Washington County 
alone fifteen forts of this sort were built. 

COMING TO BE A STATE 

29. What the people were doing one hundred years 
ago; the grist and saw mill. As we have seen, the 
people had to keep their guns ready for Indian attacks. 
But aside from fighting the Indians the people were 
trying hard to make a living in this new region soon 
to become a state. We have already seen the people 
pouring into this region from various states, and we know 
that in 18 10 the United States Census showed there were 
almost twenty-five thousand persons in the territory. 

In this early day Indiana had thirty-three grist mills 
for grinding corn and other grains. These were of two 
kinds: the first kind, probably, was merely two large 
stones, called "burrs," set one above the other. The 
boys had to wait their turn to have their grain ground. 
The power to grind was furnished by the horse of the boy 
whose turn had come. The second kind was the water 
mill, and was located on a creek. A dam in the creek 
furnished water to turn the mill. While the boys waited 
their turns here they usually took advantage of the dam 
to go swimming and fishing in the pool above. 

Fourteen saw mills, each with a vertical saw slowly 
moving up and down and forward, were driven by water 
power. These mills were cutting lumber for Indiana 
homes and for furniture to adorn them. The grist mill 
and the saw mill were the same water wheel. 



COMING TO BE A STATE 17 

30. Tanners and shoemakers. The census showed 
that Indiana Territory had eighteen tan yards, or tan- 
neries as they may have been called. The tan yard was 
made up of a number of "vats" — oblong places dug in 
the ground — in which the hides for tanning were placed 
with tanbark. The tan yard furnished leather for shoes 
and deerskin for breeches and other parts of clothing. 
Buckskin breeches, when fringed with fur, made a very 
striking appearance. But they had one drawback : when 
wet they would shrink. 

The primitive shoemaker, or cobbler as he was some- 
times called, was a man who did other things in the day- 
time but at night sat at his cobbler's bench and cut out 
shoes or pegged away at putting on soles by the light of 
his candle. Sometimes the people wore moccasins, but 
as the population grew the shoemaker's product became 
more and more popular. 

31. The spinning wheel and the loom. Thirteen 
hundred and fifty spinning wheels were humming away 
in Indiana in 18 10. The spinning wheel was of two sorts. 
The first was a large wheel that called for a woman 
walking back and forth, who furnished the motive power 
by twirling the wheel with her right hand. This sort of 
machine was devoted to spinning yarn. A second kind 
was a smaller wheel, before which the woman sat and 
furnished the power with her foot. This sort of wheel 
spun tow and flax thread. 

The loom was a larger and noisier machine. There 
were one thousand three hundred and fifty-six looms 
whacking away in 18 10, making into cloth the flax and 
yarn thread already spun. Sometimes the loom turned 
out very coarse cloth like linsey-woolsey, and at other 
times a rather fine grade of cloth such as "blue jean." 



l8 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

Both the wheel and the loom were often owned by the 
same family. Counting a family as composed of five 
persons, you can see that more than every fifth family 
owned a wheel and loom. This means that most of the 
people of early Indiana wore "home-made" clothes. 

32. The home-made clothes. The mothers and 
daughters were the tailors of that early day. They not 
only made the thread and cloth, but cut the cloth and 
made the clothes of the family. They not only made 
the nice mixed blue-jean suits which the men wore to 
church and on other occasions, but they cut and made 
the roughest clothes for work in the woods or in the fields. 
They made the clothes, both fine and coarse, of the 
women too. They were spinners, weavers, and tailors, 
besides giving aid on the farm and in the garden. 

33. The sugar camp. In 18 10 the census gave 
Indiana the credit of making, in a few weeks of the 
spring, fifty thousand pounds of maple sugar, more than 
two pounds for each man, woman, and child. The busi- 
ness of making sirup and sugar came so quickly and was 
over so soon that every member of the family had to 
join in the work. What scenes of labor in the daytime, 
and what fun and froHc at night! Boys and girls — old 
and young — carried pails of sap to the "camp" to be 
emptied into large kettles and boiled down to the candied 
stage. Here is where the fun came in. Now the candied 
sirup could be cooled and "pulled." Sometimes the 
banjo and the "fiddle" furnished music for the occasion. 

34. Other things the settlers did. Many other things 
were enumerated in that census (1810) which we must 
leave out. The people were mostly farmers and hunters, 
though every year the hunters grew fewer and the farmers 
increased in number. They were not in the prairie part 



COMING TO BE A STATE 



19 



of the state, so they had slow work cutting away the 
forest and burning up the logs, for they could not wait 
for the saw mills of that time to turn all those splendid 
trees into lumber. 

35. A new governor and a new capital. While the 
people were busy making a living they were also busy 
about other things. One of the things that most stirred 
up the people was politics, and from that day to this the 
Indiana people have loved politics! They thought a 
great deal of General Harrison, who had been their 
governor and was now general over the soldiers in the 
West. President Madison named Thomas Posey to 
take his place as governor. Like Harrison, he had been 
born in Virginia, and like him, too, he had served under 
General Wayne against the Indians. Indiana honors his 
memory by naming one of its richest counties for him. 

A question was now forcing itself upon the people. 
Where should the new capital be? Vincennes was not 
near the center of population, but some of the other towns 
were as far away as Vincennes. There was great rivalry 
and no little excitement shown 
between the towns of Madison, 
Lawrenceburg, Vevay, Charles- 
town, Clarksville, Jeffersonville, 
and Cory don. Madison won 
the vote of the lower House, 
but the council would not stand 
for it. The two Houses held a 
conference, and agreed upon 
Corydon, Harrison County. 

The people of Corydon had 
been getting ready for some such event, because in 181 1 
they began putting up a two-story building forty-two feet 




.jMJ 



THE FIRST 



20 HISTORY OP INDIANA 

square and built from near-by limestone. In this house 
the legislature met until 1825. This building still stands, 

and is cherished by the 

,^it^^ ^if^^ people of the state as an 

^ ^/-^.i. " historical landmark. 

" v_''^ ,w ^ -^"^ Likewise do the people, 

^^ Aa ' " ''^?f^-i ^ "^ \ , ^^ particular the people 

X' ' y*'^' C''''-^'''.s.- "*'"}^ of Corydon, cherish their 

famous old ' ' constitu- 



rkf^- 



tional elm," not far re- 
moved from the old capi- 

CONSTITUTIONAL ELM IT- 1 

tol. It is a stately tree, 
now over fifty feet high, and spreads its generous branches 
over one hundred and twenty feet from tip to tip. It 
stands on the banks of Big Indian Creek, vigorous and 
strong as in those old days when it gave kindly shade to 
Indiana's first constitutional convention. 

INDIANA AS A STATE 

36. The new state (1816). The people of Indiana 
wanted to become a state, and said so in a petition to 
Congress in 181 5. They had more than the required 
population — sixty thousand people. The petition, ask- 
ing Congress to make them a state, declared against slav- 
ery. Congress decided in favor of the petition, and 
Indiana came in as the nineteenth state of the Union. 
According to the census ordered by the legislature in 181 5, 
the state contained but thirteen counties. These counties 
were situated in the lower third of the state. Knox, with 
Vincennes, had over 8,000 people, while Washington, 
Franklin, and Clark came next with over 7,000 each, and 
Harrison and Wayne counties had over 6,000 each. Two- 
thirds of the land was still controlled by the Indians. 



INDIANA AS A STATE • 21 

37. The first constitution (1816). The election of 
men to make a state constitution had been attended with 
quite a bit of excitement over the question of slavery. 
There were already some slaves in the territory, but the 
men sent to Corydon to make the constitution were 
opposed to slavery. In spite of the hot weather, tempered 
by the shades of the "constitutional elm," these men did 
a fine piece of work. It has been declared that it was 
half a century in advance of the times. In matters of 
education this constitution stood well to the front, for it 
called for a graded system of schools running from the 
district school to the university. It provided asylums for 
the unfortunate, and declared that the object of punish- 
ment should be to improve or reform the criminal. These 
were steps in the right direction. But the odd part of 
it all was that the constitution was never sent to the 
people for their approval. This constitution continued 
in effect until 1850. 

38. The first governor of the state (1816). It was 
a new experience for the people to elect a governor. The 
man chosen was Jonathan Jennings. He had been a 
Congressman and had proved himself an acceptable 
president of the constitutional convention. He had many 
strong opponents, but was supported by the people, and 
elected. When at the height of his power, he wielded 
more influence than any other man in the state. Jennings 
County bears his name, and at Charlestown, where he lies 
buried, the people have built a monument in memory of 
his services to Indiana. 

39. The first state legislature. The first legislature had 
a great deal to do. In the first place, according to the 
constitution, it had to elect the other state officers. 
Since the state was new, two United States Senators 

20 



22 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

had to be elected also. In addition, this legislature 
had to make laws to carry out the different parts of the 
constitution. 

They had to lay out new counties, because the state 
was filling up fast with new settlers. New laws had to 
be made for raising taxes. For one hundred acres of very 
good land the owner had to pay a tax of one dollar; 
thirty-seven cents for a horse or mule; and for ferries 
across streams, from five to fifty dollars. For a pleasure 
carriage having two wheels the owner had to pay one 
dollar, and if it had four wheels, one dollar and twenty- 
five cents. A silver watch was taxed twenty-five cents, a 
gold watch fifty cents, and every billiard table fifty dollars ! 
The billiard tables were chiefly owned by the French 
settlers. As the state grew in population the number of 
articles that were taxed increased, and on many articles 
the tax was raised. 

40. The Indiana Centennial. Indiana completed one 
hundred years of statehood in 1916. This was an event 
that was celebrated in all parts of the state. Many 
counties held interesting exercises, and some cities pre- 
sented beautiful pageants. At Fort Wayne a pageant 
called "The Glorious Gateway of the West" with 1000 
performers was given. Famous old Cory don spent two 
days in acting over again the scenes connected with the 
beginnings of the state. The most impressive pageant 
of the year was given at Indianapolis. It occupied each 
afternoon for a whole week. More than 3000 performers 
took part, and people from all over the state came to see 
it. By song, story, and acting this wonderful pageant 
told the • history of Indiana from La Salle's time to 
19 1 6. Every child of Indiana felt his heart throb with 
pride as he saw the history of his state unfold before him. 



THE RUSH OF SETTLERS 23 

THE RUSH OF SETTLERS AFTER THE WAR OF 1812 

41. A new capital. When Congress declared that 
Indiana should be admitted to the Union, the state was 
given four sections of land on which to locate a capital. 
But the Indians occupied the entire central part of the 
state. The Indians, however, were made satisfied by a 
treaty, and in 1820 Governor Jennings told the legis- 
lature that it was time to act. Ten men were elected 
to choose the place. On June 7th, after looking over 
the ground for two weeks, they selected the present site 
of Indianapolis. It was then an almost unbroken forest. 

The next year (182 1) the town was marked off, con- 
taining a circle from which ran wide streets in every 
direction. Settlers were crowding up the Wabash and its 
tributaries in great numbers, so it was easy to sell the 
first lots not only in the new capital but in other towns. 
Thirty-five thousand dollars' worth of lots were sold, 
and in Terre Haute, in one day, twenty-one thousand 
dollars' worth were sold. Until 1824 the settlers on the 
upper Wabash had to depend on Terre Haute for a grist 
mill to grind their grain, people came in so fast. 

42. From 1816 to 1825. The tide of settlers was 
flowing in from the eastward and upward from the 
Southern states in great numbers. Some came in ox 
wagons, some on pack horses, and a few in large covered 
wagons drawn by horses. From Madison, New Albany, 
Leavenworth, Troy, Rockport, and Evansville crowds of 
people made their way farther and farther into the state. 
They all rejoiced in the great quantities of nuts furnished 
for their hogs by the oak and beech trees, while their 
cattle and sheep fed most of the winter on the wild pea 
vines that grew in plenty. 



24 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

By 1820 these settlers had pushed up to Greencastle, 
and in four years more they had laid out Crawfordsville. 

Richmond sold its first lot in -1816, and within six 
years it had more than four hundred people. It was 
enterprising in this early time, for it had not only factories 
and stores, but two newspapers. One of them declared 
(1825) that such crowds of settlers passing along the 
National Road (p. 207) had never been seen before. 
In the years of 182 1 and 1822 over six hundred thousand 
acres of Indiana land were bought from the national 
government. The people came in such numbers that 
between 1816 and 1820 the population more than doubled. 
By 1822 forty-six counties had reached their present 
boundaries, while to the northward Wabash, Delaware, 
and Randolph counties included vast stretches of country 
out of which new counties were to be carved. 

THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 

43. The first roads. The earliest roads in Indiana 
were Indian trails. These were paths made by the red 
man in going from one place to another, and were at first 
used by the white men. The Indian never improved his 
roads. When the fur trade was the only industry, these 
trails and the waterways were the only means of getting 
from place to place. 

When white settlers began to pour into the territory, 
dirt roads began to furnish the routes of travel. At first 
these roads were marked through the woods by blazing 
the sides of the trees. They were then traveled mainly 
by the settlers on horseback, driving their herds. A 
little later came settlers driving ox wagons with wheels 
made out of the ends of great logs, or two-horse covered 
wagons with wheels made in the ordinary way. In these 



THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 25 

wagons were placed the family furniture, and in them 
the "women folks" usually slept. 

It soon became necessary to improve the roads. This 
was done by cutting young trees and laying them side 
by side in places where the mud was deep. This sort 
of roadway was known as a corduroy road and was 
certainly rough, and made travehng in wagons rather 
jolty. 

When the stagecoach began to carry passengers along 
these routes, the corduroy roads became a necessity. 
Along the more traveled routes, plank roads were built. 
These consisted of rather narrow planks laid side by 
side., But such roads did not last long, and the people 
who built them made little or no money. These plank 
roads were "toll roads." 

44. Where the leading routes began. Early settlers 
in Indiana came either from the East or from the South. 
The South in that early day furnished by far the greater 
number, and even of those who came from the East 
many came by way of the Ohio. The roads leading 
into the state began at Cincinnati, Madison, Jefferson- 
ville. New Albany, Boone's Ferry in Harrison County, 
Frederica, or Yellow Banks. 

45. Where the routes led. From Cincinnati the 
settlers went up the Whitewater into the eastern counties, 
while those coming to Madison turned westward, by the 
stagecoach route, as far as the east fork of White River, 
or turned a bit southwest to Hanover and Lexington and 
then went southward to Charlestown or still on to Salem, 
where they met the road coming northward from the 
Ohio. 

From New Albany and Jeffersonville a road ran 
northward to Charlestown or turned northwest to Salem, 



26 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

branching here to different towns, the main Hne going to 
Bloomington and Bedford. The Wabash furnished the 
main route for settlers going to occupy the western 
counties. 

The "Buffalo" or "Vincennes Trace" was another 
famous route. It was the path traveled for unknown 
centuries by great herds of buffalo, going from Illinois 
prairies to the Kentucky salt licks. The Trace crossed 
the Wabash near Vincennes and moved toward the Falls 
of the Ohio, passing near the present sites of Petersburg, 
French Lick, and Paoli. It was much used by settlers 
seeking homes in the Wabash country. 

46. Blazing a road through the woods (1818). A man 
named Whetzel, living near Brookville, obtained per- 
mission of the Indians to cut a road to the Bluffs of 
White River. He took five men and food for nine days 
and went to the Bluffs direct, blazing the trees along the 
way by chipping them with the ax. Reaching White 
River in Johnson County, he turned east and began the 
slow and difficult work of making a road through the 
dense woods, cutting down the trees and underbrush so 
that a team and wagon could pass. This road was long 
known as "Whetzel Trace." The road makers some- 
times had to cut their way through great swamps up 
to their "midsides in water." For the night they cut 
brush and made heaps on which they slept. Hundreds 
of early settlers traveled along this "Trace," seeking 
homes in Marion, Johnson, Morgan, and Shelby counties. 

47. The National Road. This great road began at 
Cumberland, Maryland, and finally reached the Missis- 
sippi at St. Louis (§332). It ran through the center of 
the state, passing through the counties of Wayne, Henry, 
Hancock, Marion, Hendricks, Putnam, Clay, and Vigo. 



THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 27 

To these counties, and to many other parts of the state, 
this road brought thousands of people. 

48. The Michigan Road. Indiana resolved to have 
a road of her own. In 1827 commissioners made a treaty 
with the Potawatomi Indians by which they received a 
gift of land. This land was equal to a strip a mile wide 
running from the Ohio River to Lake Michigan. The 
choice of Trail Creek to be the northern end of the road 
decided the location of Michigan City. This road was 
the making of many towns along its route. Some towns 
were already growing, and some were to be built. 

The Michigan Road ran northward from Madison 
through Jefferson and Ripley counties to Greenburg in 
Decatur County. Through Shelby it passed on to 
Marion County, where it crossed the National Road at 
Indianapolis. From here it ran almost due north through 
the counties of Boone and Hamilton, through Clinton and 
the eastern side of Carroll to Logansport. The road 
continued on up through Fulton, Marshall, and St. 
Joseph counties to South Bend, where it turned directly 
west, through La Porte County, to the lake. Thousands 
of pioneers reached the rich farming lands of the state 
over this road, and coming where the National Road 
crossed this road at Indianapolis they could turn in any 
of three directions to find homes. 

49. Stagecoach lines. Along the old "Trace" from 
Louisville to Vincennes the first stage route was estab- 
Hshed in 1820. A portion of this route from Paoli to 
New Albany is still traveled by a stage, the oldest in 
Indiana. 

Before the Michigan Road was built another stage 
(1828) started from Madison to Indianapolis, passing 
through Vernon, Columbus, and Franklin. It took from 



28 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

Thursday to Saturday to make the trip, and cost six and 
one-quarter cents a mile — dearer and slower than the 
"Jeffersonville, Madison, Indianapolis"! Two years later 
another stage was put on the road from Lawrenceburg to 
Indianapolis, making the time in two days and one night. 

Brookville was connected by stage (1831) with both 
Indianapolis and Cincinnati. Many of these routes 
were soon sending off branches in different directions. 

From Leavenworth on the Ohio (1835) a stage started 
for Indianapolis, running through Milltown, Paoli, 
Orleans, Bedford, Bloomington, and Martinsville. This 
road was said to carry two classes of interesting passengers : 
students going to Bloomington and boatmen returning 
from down-river trips. 

The old route from Louisville to Vincennes was now 
extended through Lafayette to Logansport, and at 
Logansport connected with a stage on the Michigan Road. 
Another branch ran from Logansport to Peru and Fort 
Wayne and on to Ohio towns. The lines carrying the 
United States mail had beautiful four-horse coaches, 
some of which cost six hundred dollars. 

50. The passengers and the people. Nothing in that 
early time could be more interesting than the stage- 
coach. To see one come in sight on a long stretch of 
road, four horses driven at breakneck speed, driver on 
the outside blowing his horn, was indeed a great sight. 
But the coach was filled with people who were not 
enjoying the ride so much as did their observers. For 
the roads were not always smooth; neither were they 
always dry, and frequently the coach mired down and 
the passengers had to get out and help pull it out of the 
mud. Sometimes creeks were swollen and the river 
fords could not be passed. 



THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 29 

51. The flatboat. The earliest craft to float on 
Indiana waters was the Indian canoe, but it could not 
carry a big load. Flatboats succeeded these as soon 
as the white man came, and by 1820 they had grown 
numerous on the rivers leading into the Ohio. From 
this time forward, to 1840, the great majority of products 
for sale in the state was carried to market on flatboats. 

The streams running into the Wabash, and the larger 
ones passing into the Ohio, were the main routes for 
these boats. The farther up the boat went, the smaller 
she had to be. She floated downstream, but had to be 
"poled" upstream. A boat for poling was about forty 
feet long. Six or eight men walking along its sides, with 
one end of the pole in the water and the other placed 
against their shoulders, were able to "pole" four tons 
upstream a distance of ten miles in a day. 

Along the Ohio and the Wabash were many, landing 
places where large flatboats were laden for the markets 
below, usually New Orleans. The days set apart for the 
loading were days of frolic, the women coming to cook 
for the men. Some men brought live hogs, fat cattle, 
chickens, geese, corn, lard, salt pork, beeswax, deer, hams, 
and wild turkeys. At Lawrenceburg twenty-seven 
flatboats were loaded and floated downstream in one 
year. In 1826 one hundred and fifty-two flatboats 
passed Vincennes for New Orleans. But for real business, 
Madison, the center of the pork-packing industry of the 
state, led all the other towns in business with New 
Orleans. It was estimated that one-half the boatmen 
in New Orleans were Hoosiers. Before 1830 most of 
these made their way back on foot. 

52. The steamboat. In that early day, rapid travel 
by country road and river steamer was far more important 



30 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

than now. The Ohio furnished plenty of water for 
steamboating. The Wabash promised well; it certainly 
had enough water in its lower course, and in the rainy 
season it was expected its branches would lend them- 
selves to steamboating. But it was found that very few 
steamboats ever got above Lafayette. As early as 1821 
a steamboat made regular trips to Terre Haute. In 183 1 
one made its way on the White River as far as Indian- 
apoHs. The people of the capital celebrated this event. 
A like excitement was caused by a steamboat from Lake 
Michigan running up to South Bend and Elkhart. 

53. The Wabash and Erie CanaL Washington, when 
president, called attention to the near approach of the 
Maumee and the Wabash rivers and pointed out that a 
short canal between these streams would give a water- 
way from the East to the Ohio Valley. De Witt Clinton, 
the father of the Erie Canal, had written to Governor 
Jennings (18 17), pointing out that a great canal between 
the Hudson and the Mississippi rivers would be greatly 
helped by Indiana joining in the movement. As the 
western and northeastern sections of the state filled up, 
the demand for a canal grew louder and louder. 

The legislature took up the question, and after many 
failures decided (1832) to begin the work at once. Money 
for the canal came from the sale of public lands. From 
Fort Wayne to Lafayette the canal was finally finished. 
Ohio had done her part, and a joint celebration was 
addressed at Fort Wayne by General Cass (1843). 

54. The Internal Improvement BilL But the most 
thickly settled portion of the state at that time had no 
canal. Therefore the people of the Whitewater Valley 
were demanding an outlet to Ohio. But a demand was 
now rising from all parts of the state for some great 



THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 31 

undertaking to benefit the people. This was provided for 
by the great Bill of 1836. It provided for the follow- 
ing things: (i) the Whitewater Canal; (2) the Central 
Canal to run from Peru through Indianapolis to Evans- 
ville; (3) extension of Wabash and Erie Canal to Terre 
Haute and then to Central Canal in Green County; 
(4) a railroad from Madison to Lafayette, Columbus, and 
Indianapolis; (5) a turnpike from New Albany to Vin- 
cennes, passing through Paoli ; (6) a railroad or a turnpike 
from Jeffersonville to Lafayette, passing through the 
towns of Salem, Bedford, Bloomington, Greencastle, and 
Crawf ordsville ; (7) removing drifts, sandbars, and snags 
from the Wabash River; (8) either a railroad or a canal 
from Fort Wayne to Michigan City. 

This bill left no large and thickly settled region with- 
out help, and the news of its passage was wildly received. 
Bonfires, addresses, and other celebrations were held in 
nearly every part of the state. Indiana began to boom, 
but the panic of 1837 caught the people unawares. The 
total cost of all their schemes was set down at thirteen 
million dollars. Work on these different improvements 
had to be stopped, and men who had put their money 
into these schemes failed. 

The state finally sold to private parties some of the 
works which had been undertaken, some were never 
begun, and a few were continued. In i860 that part of 
the Wabash and Erie Canal south of Terre Haute was 
abandoned. Long before this date, railroads were gradu- 
ally taking the place of canals. But for many years the 
debt for internal improvements in Indiana weighed upon 
the taxpayers, and the state felt compelled in the end to 
make terms with people she owed. This situation taught 
the people of the state a good but dear lesson. 



32 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

55. State parks. Indiana has three state parks. 
One of these is AlcCormick's Creek Canyon Park. It 
is in Owen County and contains 347 acres. Another is 
Turkey Run Park in Parke County, nine miles north of 
Rockville. It contains 1400 acres. A third is Chfty 
Falls Park near Madison. It was donated by citizens 
of Madison and contains about 600 acres. These state 
parks are forest and game preserves and abound in 
interesting scenery. 

HOME LIFE AND OCCUPATIONS 

56. The first house. The "three-sided camp" came 
from the South. The cHmate there permitted it, but 
the settlers from the North built a better protection 
against wind and weather. Very often the cabin had 
neither door nor window to shut out storms, and some- 
times only the bare ground for a floor. 

The Lincoln family had both kinds — a "shack" for 
the first year and a real cabin after that. At one end of 
the cabin stood a chimney made of sticks and mud, large 
enough to take in the great piles of wood which fed the 
fires on a winter's evening. Before this sort of a fire 
young Lincoln did his reading and "ciphering." 

57. Into the new house. As soon as a farmer grew 
well to do, or was bent on improving his condition, he 
built a larger house of hewn or sawed logs. This new 
residence was thirty to forty feet long and two stories 
high, and was put up with a great frolic to which the 
entire neighborhood was invited. If unusually well to 
do, he built a kitchen at one end or, it might be, at one 
side, so that a covered porch could join them. This 
house was covered with clapboards split from Indiana oak, 
or later by shingles made from the tulip or poplar tree. 



HOME LIFE AND OCCUPATIONS 33 

The furniture was slowly growing better. From 1820 
to i860 the bedsteads had their ticks of feathers, covered 
with sheets, blankets, and coverlets which took the place 
of frames of poles fastened to the wall and covered with 
the skins of animals. 

For people of means, tables and chairs began to come 
from the "stores" or shops, but the poor had yet to put 
up with home-made stools, chairs, and tables. The 
furnishings for the table also began to improVe. Iron 
knives and forks and wooden or pewter dishes began to 
give place to steel knives and forks, with plates and other 
dishes made from artificial stoneware. 

58. The kitchen. The number of cooking stoves 
began to increase. In early times the housewife had 
cooked the meal before the fireplace, using a skillet, with 
coals both under and on top, for baking bread; but for 
making the toothsome johnnycake she used a board which 
was set before a fire of red-hot coals. An iron pot con- 
tained the meat and vegetables for boiling. Sometimes 
the meat was broiled over red-hot coals, but was often 
fried in a skillet. Wood was used on the fire everywhere. 
The early pioneers had all sorts of game — squirrels, 
turkeys, deer, opossums, quail, rabbits, and now and 
then a bear. But the deer, turkeys, and bears were 
soon gone, and domestic animals took their places. 

59. What the people wore. At first the men wore 
skins and furs for clothing. The deerskin, with its hair 
removed, furnished hunting shirts and breeches, and 
moccasins for footwear. When wet, these skins "drew 
up," and made one feel decidedly uncomfortable. 
Bearskins were made into overcoats. 

But the pioneers were not long in getting rid of these 
rude though durable clothes. The spinning wheel and 



34 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

loom brought other kinds — linsey-woolsey, jeans, and 
tow pants and flax shirts. As soon as tanneries were 
started in different parts of the state, rude sorts of boots 
and shoes were made by the pioneer shoemaker. He 
often worked at his bench at night by the Hght of candles 
and in the daytime was busy about other matters. Some- 
times he was a "strolling" shoemaker, and stopped for a 
time wherever he found shoes to mend or to make. 

When imported goods began to reach Indiana, a 
change in clothing came. The well-to-do people put on 
broadcloth and brocades. Dress skirts were sometimes 
seen spread out by the use of hoops. The old sunbonnet 
gave way to the hat with flowers on it, and a finer quality 
of shoes was worn. 

60. The Indiana farmer. The great majority of 
people coming to Indiana in an early day were farmers. 
It is only in the time since the Civil War that many 
people have become interested in other things. These 
early settlers either cut a "clearing" or later deadened the 
trees and permitted them to stand for a year or more. 
In either case the "log rolling" took place. Men came 
from rniles and miles around to take part. They were 
divided into two squads, of eight or ten men each. With 
axes they cut the logs and with hand spikes piled them 
in great heaps. Sometimes the men raced to see which 
squad could pile the most logs. The women were busy 
too, some cooking, others quilting or sewing, and at 
night they finished up with a dance. 

The finest trees of poplar, oak, walnut, or ash were 
left for rails or lumber. The first crop on the new 
ground was generally corn. The rich soil brought forth 
big crops, but it was hard to get it ready, for tools were 
of the rudest sort and roots and stumps were thick. 



HOME LIFE AND OCCUPATIONS 35 

Among the corn, in this rich soil, the farmer usually 
raised a fine crop of pumpkins. 

After the crop of corn had ripened, just before frost, 
the farmer and his sons cut it and shocked it. Perhaps 
later in the season he drove a wagon through, pulled the 
ears of corn from the stalk, and hauled the load to the crib. 
• When the winter months approached, the country 
school was opened and the farmers' sons and daughters 
all "signed up" for the term. Later they took advantage 
of the free public schools. It was difficult at first to 
teach boys and girls the value of being on time and being 
present each day of school. There were so many things 
to do at home — cut wood, go to the mill, haul in the corn, 
and so on — that farmers' boys found it difficult to 
attend school regularly. 

6i. Other occupations. Every county had to have 
a county seat, or capital, even if there were no other 
towns. Originally the business part of the town was 
built around the "square," on which were the courthouse 
and the county jail. These towns called for one tavern 
or hotel for lodging the judges, lawyers, and men attend- 
ing the courts. In every town there were great demands 
for horses, hence it contained one or more livery stables, 
with horses and carriages and keepers. The man of 
wealth was usually the storekeeper. He kept a general 
store. In the early days his store contained everything 
from calico to hob nails. 

The census taken in 1840 showed how much progress 
Indiana had made in many things. The manufactures 
then amounted to over $4,000,000 a year. Eleven 
business houses were engaged in the foreign trade ; there 
were twenty-six wholesale houses and nearly two thousand 
retail stores. The fur trade still amounted to over 



36 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

$200,000 a year. The meat-packing industry now ran 
up to $580,000. New Albany led the state in making 
machinery, and Indianapolis in making wagons. In the 
state were three paper mills, located at Brookville, 
Madison, and Richmond. Michigan City, the only lake 
port, sent out over 270,000 bushels of grain, and great 
quantities of flour and pork — all bound for the East 
by way of the Erie Canal. The occupations of commerce 
and manufacture employed 23,600 men, while the farm 
led with over 148,800 persons. 

THE SCHOOLS OF INDIANA 

62. Beginning of Indiana schools. We remember 
what the Ordinance of 1787 and the first constitution 
said about education (pp. 5 and 20). But the people were 
too scattered at that time, or too poor, to press for schools. 
In many parts of the state "subscription schools" were 
the only sort. These were taught by men in the neighbor- 
hood who had a reputation for using the rod as well as 
for "book learning." Some of these teachers were not 
long from Scotland or Ireland, and their "brogue" 
furnished suppressed amusement for the boys and girls. 
To one of these subscription schools young Lincoln went 
when living in Spencer County. 

Not textbooks, but the Bible was used in teaching 
reading. Books of all sorts were scarce in the Indiana 
backwoods, and therefore spelling, writing, reading, and 
arithmetic were the subjects usually taught. Sometimes 
grammar and geography were added. In many of the 
schools of this time there existed the strange custom of 
studying one's lesson "out loud." What a noise! 

But the real test of scholarship for that day was the 
ability to spell orally. Hence the frequent "spelHngs" 



THE SCHOOLS OF INDIANA 37 

that took place in each school. On each Friday afternoon 
the school was divided into opposing sides and fought 
it out. Opposing schools held joint spelling bees, and 
great was the honor going to the winning school. 

63. Growth of the common school moneys. Not 
much was done before 1852 in the way of developing a 
"system of schools." Perhaps the most important thing 
accomplished before this date was the creation of sources 
from which came school money. Eight different sources 
furnished this money: (i) the Congressional Township 
Fund, (2) the Bank Tax Fund, (3) the Sinking Fund, 
(4) the Surplus Revenue Fund, (5) the SaHne Fund, 
(6) the Swamp Land Fund, (7) the Seminary Fund, (8) 
the Contingent Fund. 

The money for these funds was obtained in various 
ways, among which were the sale of land given by the 
general government, the interest from Indiana's part in 
the State Bank, national money loaned to the state, the 
sale of salt springs given to the state by Congress, and 
the sale of county seminaries. 

64. Coimty seminaries. The pioneers in education 
laid the foundations broad and deep. They provided 
for a common school to take care of the children, for 
county seminaries to take care of ambitious boys and 
girls, and for a university to invite to its halls those whose 
ambitions urged them beyond the seminary. 

The law founding the county seminary was passed 
in 18 18, but only here and there did the seminaries 
succeed, largely because of lack of funds. Up to 1830 
eighteen had been established. Perhaps the most impor- 
tant of these was that at Salem, in Washington County. 
This attained widest popularity under the direction of 
John I. Morrison, for more than twenty years its head. 



38 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

The law of 1842 turned into the permanent fund the 
money obtained from the sale of county seminaries. 

65. The struggle for the state university. In the 
days while Harrison was yet governor of Indiana Ter- 
ritory, a law was passed (1807) establishing Vincennes 
University to teach Latin, Greek, French, English, 
mathematics, natural philosophy, ancient and modern 
history, moral philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and the laws 
of nature and nations. Congress had previously (1804) 
granted the territory a township of land for the use of a 
university. This was located in Gibson County. For 
want of money, the university closed its doors in 1824. 

In 1 81 6 Congress gave Indiana another township of 
land to support a seminary. Out of this gift grew a 
seminary at Bloomington. It opened with a new building 
in 1825. In 1828 the legislature raised the rank of the 
institution to that of a college; in 1838 it received its first 
charter as a university. But not until long after the Civil 
War did the legislature begin to feel that the university 
was an institution to be treated generously. In 1919 this 
institution counted over 3200 students. It now has, in 
addition to the college of Liberal Arts, the schools of 
Law, Medicine, Education, JournaHsm, and Commerce. 

66. Rise of denominational schools. From 1825 to 
1850 was the time of the rise of church schools in Indiana. 
The CathoHcs began early at Vincennes and later, in 1842, 
founded Notre Dame. The Presbyterians came next 
with an academy at Hanover (1827). This school was 
turned into a college in 1833. The same denomination 
founded Wabash College (1833) under the leadership of 
Caleb Mills, a great name in Indiana's early educational 
history. The Baptists were early in the field, and 
founded FrankHn College in 1835. 



THE SCHOOLS OF INDIANA 39 

The Methodists were pressing hard, and established 
several promising schools: Indiana Asbury University 
(1837), now De Pauw University; New Albany Seminary 
(1837); Fort Wayne College; Brookville College, and 
Moores Hill College. There was an interval of time 
between the founding of Franklin College and the found- 
ing of the Friends' Boarding School at Richmond (1847), 
out of which came Earlham College. In 1852 Butler 
College had its beginning at the hands of the Christian 
church. 

The church schools were in many ways a great blessing 
to the communities in which they were, and gave a good 
preparation for the battle of life to the hundreds of young 
men who, without this help, would never have obtained 
it. It was a recognition of their worth that caused the 
legislature in late years to put certain presidents of these 
schools on the State Board of Education. 

67. The rise of the common school. The real begin- 
ning of our modern common school in Indiana takes 
its rise from the constitution of 1850, and the legislation 
following it. In 1865 teachers' institutes were established 
and continued in one kind or another to the present time. 
Later came a law providing for County Examiner, which 
was changed, with greater powers to the holder, to 
County Superintendent. The County Board of Educa- 
tion was added, which is composed of the County Superin- 
tendent, the township trustees, and the school trustees 
of the cities or towns in the county. The County 
Superintendent now examines the teachers for county 
licenses. 

68. Consolidated rural schools. In 1876 the judges 
at the Centennial Exposition ranked Indiana as second 
in her system of schools. Indiana is known far and wide 



40 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

for her fine system of consolidated rural schools. The 
movement to get rid of the one-room school began about 
1898. In 1899 a law was passed providing for the trans- 
portation of children to central schools. This movement 
has grown so fast that in some counties there are few one- 
room schools, and in the state only about 5000 one-room 
schools are left. Usually, there is one consoHdated school 
for each township. When the Panama-Pacific Exposition 
was held at San Francisco (191 5), Indiana was chosen as 
the state that had made most progress in school consoli- 
dation. It was asked to prepare an exhibit to show the 
world how consolidated schools are run in Indiana. 

The State Board of Education has general control of 
the public schools. It issues state licenses to teachers, 
adopts textbooks, and classifies the high schools. Acting 
as a State Teachers' Training Board, it supervises all 
normal schools and colleges where teachers are trained. 
The State Superintendent of Public Instruction has many 
important duties. 

69. The state normal school. The increase in the 
building of new schoolhouses created a demand for more 
teachers. But it was soon found that many of these 
were poorly prepared for their work. This situation gave 
rise to the demand for a state normal school. After ten 
years of agitation it was opened in the city of Terre 
Haute in 1870. From the first its growth was steady 
though -slow. The school has had only three presidents. 
William Woods Parsons has been its efficient head for more 
than thirty years. More than two thousand teachers are 
now enrolled each year. This school has a hbrary the 
equal, if not the superior, of that of any normal school in 
the United States. In 191 7 a branch of the normal school 
was opened at Muncie. It is called the Eastern Division. 



INDIANA IN THE MEXICAN WAR 41 

A number of other normal schools are found in the 
state. They are accredited for the training of different 
grades of teachers. 

70. Purdue University. This school is located in 
Tippecanoe County. To cover the first cost, Congress 
gave Indiana land amounting, when sold, to over $212,000. 
John Purdue and others gave $250,000 for the institution 
to locate where it is. The university opened in 1874 with 
three schools: (i) Natural Science; (2) Engineering; and 
(3) Agriculture. The scope of the school has widened in 
recent years, and now its work is felt in every part of the 
state, especially among the farmers. Purdue keeps in 
touch with the woi4c of boys' and girls' clubs and trains 
teachers of agriculture, home economics, and industrial 
arts. In addition Purdue carries its extension work into 
all parts of the state. 

71. The Rose Polytechnic Institute. This institution 
was founded by Chauncey Rose in the city of Terre 
Haute in 1874. Mr. Rose gave grounds, money for 
buildings, and money for endowment, and left a part 
of his property as a further endowment for the school. 
As the name implies, it is mainly engaged in teaching 
mechanical, civil, and electrical engineering. It ranks 
high among such schools, and has already outgrown its 
present location and is planning a new one. 

INDIANA IN THE MEXICAN WAR 

72. Early politics in Indiana. The old Federalist 
party was dying or dead before Indiana became a state. 
When the new party, the Whig, was taking form, the 
people of Indiana were not taking a very decided part 
in politics, but were generally Democratic, Jackson being 
very popular as a western man and an Indian fighter. 



42 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

But in the presidential campaign of 1840 Indiana rolled 
up over thirteen thousand majority for her old governor, 
Harrison, a Whig. In 1848 she stood' by her neighbor's 
candidate, Cass of Michigan, and gave him four thousand 
over the Whig, General Taylor. Between 1840 and 1850 
Indiana was Democratic by growing majorities. 

73. Indiana in the Mexican War. The war with 
Mexico stirred the fighting blood of the young men of 
the state. Several regiments were enrolled, of which the 
officers, as well as the men, were mainly volunteers. 
Although the Whigs were opposed to the war, many 
young Whigs joined for reasons of adventure and still 
others because of their neighbors' going, and because they 
thought that since we had begun the war, we must fight 
it out. 

But the Whigs were not the only ones opposed to 
the war. The Liberty party was out-and-out opposed, 
because this party believed that the war was being carried 
on to obtain more slave territory, and since they were 
abolitionists they stood stoutly against making war on 
Mexico. 

Notwithstanding this opposition, the state raised the 
five regiments allotted to her by the national government. 
James P. Drake commanded one regiment and Henry S. 
Lane was lieutenant-colonel. When Lane came home he 
was made governor, and afterward elected to Congress. 
Captain R. H. Milroy led one of the companies, and 
in the Civil War became a major-general. Lew Wallace, 
who was second lieutenant, also became a major-general 
in the Civil War; later he was minister to Turkey. 
Besides these great men, Joseph Lane, William Bowles, 
Nathan C. Kimball, L. H. Rousseau, and many others 
won name and fame in Mexico. 



INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 43 

INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 

74. The "Underground Railroad." The result of the 
Mexican War and the Compromise of 1850 troubled a 
great many minds. When Martin Van Buren became 
the presidential candidate of the Free Soil party, Indiana 
gave him eight thousand votes — four times as many as 
she had given the candidate of the Liberty party four 
years before. However, Indiana was faithfully Demo- 
cratic in 1852 and in 1856. 

The people of Indiana had not yet felt compelled to 
vote for or against slavery. But from the Mexican War 
to 1 86 1 there was a gradual increase in the number of 
people who were willing to aid negroes to escape from 
their masters. This condition of affairs was true in all 
states of the North. Indiana was no exception. 

Sometimes it was a trusted negro, sometimes a white 
man, who gathered up a family or a number of the bolder 
negroes in the night time, and led the way through the 
woods to the Ohio. Here a signal usually brought a 
boat to the Kentucky shore. The negroes were carried 
over, where they found other white men to pilot them to 
some great thicket to spend the first day while the white 
leaders sought food for them. The second night they 
traveled until they came to a cellar or barn or coal mine 
where they could remain for a time until the excitement 
over their escape died away. Then, hidden in a wagon, 
they made their way to the northern part of the state and 
to Canada. 

75. Tricks played upon the negro hunters. The men 
who came armed with authority usually could find 
persons to assist them in the hunt for runaway negroes. 
At night they often watched the ferry or some bridge 
across a stream. It was great sport to gather a crowd 



44 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

on horseback, run down the negro hunters, bind them, 
threaten their Hves, and then permit them to escape. 

One negro hunter, Hving on the road along which 
escaped negroes were known to travel, kept a pack of 
hounds for catching negroes. One day the hunter saw 
a negro dodging around his barn. He immediately 
called his pack and put them on the trail. He followed 
them a mile away into a deep forest, where the dogs had 
the negro "treed." The hunter came dashing up on his 
horse and commanded the negro to come down on pain 
of being shot. A number of his neighbors had reached 
the scene of action, attracted apparently by the bellowing 
of the hounds. The negro climbed down, and behold, he 
was the hunter's own neighbor, with a blackened face! 
The neighbors had a good laugh at the hunter's expense. 

76. Lincoln's election in i86o. Lincoln had lived in 
Spencer County more than a dozen years, and there his 
mother lies buried. Over her grave a noble son of 
Indiana in after days erected a fine stone bearing these 
words: "Nancy Hanks Lincoln, Mother of President 
Lincoln: died October 5th, a.d., 1818, aged 35 years. 
Erected by a friend of her martyred son, 1879." 

The people of Indiana were deeply interested in 
Lincoln. It was the stand for Lincoln of the Indiana 
men at Chicago that did much to bring about his nomina- 
tion for the Presidency. Lincoln made it clear in the 
great debates with Douglas that Popular Sovereignty 
and the Dred Scott Decision were in conflict. This 
helped to split the Democratic party into a southern and a 
northern wing, and thus secured the election of Lincoln. 

The election of Congress in 1858 showed which way 
the tide in Indiana was running. The RepubHcans 
elected eight members and the Democrats but three. 



INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 



45 



When the "October" states, of which Indiana was one, 
elected state officers in i860, the men of the South saw 
that Lincoln would be elected. Douglas canceled all his 
engagements and went South to plead with southern 
statesmen not to break up the Union because of Lincoln's 
election. Lincoln was elected, and a Confederacy was 
formed from the states that 
left the Union. 

77. Morton, one of the 
greatest of war governors. 
(1861). Before a mass 
meeting to rejoice over 
Lincoln's election, Lieuten- 
ant-Governor Oliver P. 
Morton declared: "If it 
was worth a bloody struggle 
to establish this nation, it is 
worth one to preserve it." 
This was called a keynote 
speech. Washington's 
birthday was celebrated by raising the Stars and Stripes 
over the old statehouse. Speeches had been made, but 
they were pacific. The crowd called for Morton. He 
responded with a fiery speech : ' ' For myself, I will know 
no man who will stop and prescribe the conditions upon 
which he will maintain that flag, who will argue that a 
single star may be erased, or who will consent that it be 
torn that he may make choice between its dishonored 
fragments. I will know that man only who vows fidelity 
to the Union and the Constitution, under all circum- 
stances and at all hazards!" This speech raised every- 
body's courage and prepared them for the crisis that 
was to come. 




OLIVER P. MORTON 



46 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

78. The call to arms. Fort Sumter fell in mid- April, 
and the next morning Lincoln sent forth his "call to arms." 
Parallel with it went a message from Stephen A. Douglas, 
who had thousands of warm friends in Indiana, telling 
them of his resolution to stand by President Lincoln. 
Governor Morton sent the following dispatch : " On behalf 
of the State of Indiana, I tender you for the defense of 
the nation, and to uphold the authority of the govern- 
ment, ten thousand men." In a few days twenty 
thousand men had offered their services. From the Ohio 
to the lake and from the Wabash to the Whitewater the 
men of Indiana were rising! This was their answer to 
the attack on Fort Sumter. 

79. Looking after the comfort of Indiana boys. 
Governor Morton and the noble men and women who 
aided him deserve lasting gratitude for the quick and 
efficient way in which they helped Indiana boys. No 
sooner was a great battle fought in which Indiana troops 
took part than aid was quick in reaching the wounded. 
Morton was there in person or sent some one to look after 
the needs of the troops. Clothes, food, shoes, tents, lint 
and bandages for wounds, and even nurses were sent. 
Morton was certainly one of the greatest war governors. 

80. Opposition to the war. Many of the people of 
Indiana were born in the South, and many others had 
business friends and connections there. It was not 
unnatural that many persons, especially in southern 
Indiana, should oppose the war. The war lasted longer 
than most people thought. The cost in blood and money 
was growing mountain high. Some men in the nation 
were for peace at any price, and others wanted peace 
because they thought the South could not be beaten. 
The more extreme people were called "Copperheads" or 



INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 47 

"Butternuts" by their enemies, but by themselves 
"Sons of Liberty" or "Knights of the Golden Circle." 
These people were members of a secret society and 
were accused by Governor Morton of being in league 
with the Confederates. He had spies who searched out 
their innermost secrets. It was charged that they 
intended to rise at a given time, set the Confederate 
prisoners free in the northern states, and march south to 
join the Confederate armies. 

When ready, Governor Morton pounced upon the 
leaders, arrested some of them, and tried and condemned 
them to death, but they were finally set free. 

8i. A taste of war. War is an awful thing! But it 
was a great blessing to Indiana that she did not see and 
feel the worst horrors of the war. She was protected by 
the Ohio River and by Kentucky. But now and then 
the Confederates made a bold dash as if about to cross 
the Ohio, as in the case of Bragg making for Louisville and 
Kirby Smith coming out of the mountains, of Kentucky 
and making for Cincinnati. What a fright the people 
of Indiana had as these two forces approached the Ohio ! 

Indiana, with Morton behind her, was hurrying every 
man who could bear arms to the help of the Union 
armies. More than twenty thousand were rushed to 
Kentucky. But by the time these forces arrived, Bragg 
and Kirby Smith had been driven back into Tennessee. 

82. John Morgan's raid (1863). Frequent reports 
were sent out that Confederates were crossing the Ohio 
into southern Indiana. Most of these were mere plunder- 
ing expeditions. Many of the people had grown used to 
these scares, and were hardly ready when John Morgan, 
on July 8th, really crossed into Indiana at Brandenburg. 
He had two thousand four hundred men and six guns. 



48 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

His troops were well mounted and used to the hard 
work before them. They met with slight resistance. 
He started for Cory don. Governor Morton called for 
volunteers, and ordered the southern counties to head 
Morgan oR and to annoy him in every way possible. 
Within forty-eight hours after the first call, sixty- 
five thousand men were enlisted, but the authorities 
hardly knew whether Morgan would try to free the Con- 
federate prisoners at Indianapolis or march upon New 
Albany and Jeffersonville, where four milhon dollars' 
worth of military stores were located. Colonel Lewis 
Jordan with four hundred men attacked Morgan, but 
failed to stop him. Morgan -hastened to Corydon, 
destroyed some property, collected twenty-one hundred 
dollars, and took five hundred horses. He plundered 
Paoli and Salem, moving rapidly because his direction 
became known. He threw out forces toward Indianapolis 
to give the impression that he was going in that direction, 
while in fact he was striking eastward through Lexington, 
gathering horses and plunder as he went. He frightened 
the people of Madison, but kept to the northward and 
passed through Dupont. Here he robbed a "pork 
house" of two thousand hams, burned bridges, and made 
a sudden turn toward Versailles, where he captured 
three hundred mihtia and robbed the county treasury of 
five thousand dollars. The militia behind could hardly 
keep up, because Morgan left only tired and worn-out 
horses for them. When he reached Sunman's Station 
he met a large body of troops. He avoided attacking 
them, and made a dash for the Ohio line. Indiana and 
Ohio were now thoroughly roused. The Ohio troops soon 
closed in upon him, killing and capturing nearly all his 
men. This invasion gave Indiana a genuine taste of war. 



INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 49 

Indiana very generously paid the people for losses at 
the hands of the raiders to the amount of over four hun- 
dred thousand dollars. 

83. The war comes to an end. The war went on 
until the spring of 1865. Battle after battle was fought 
in which Indiana boys bore a brave part and their officers 
distinguished themselves. 

According to her population, Indiana gave more 
men to be soldiers than any other northern state except 
Delaware — 197,779. Of this number 24,426 were killed 
in battle or died of disease. More than one hundred and 
fifty infantry regiments were enlisted, fourteen cavalry, 
and twenty-seven artillery regiments. They fought in 
every Confederate state except Florida. ' ' Three Indiana 
regiments took part in the first battle of the war, and an 
Indianian was the first to yield up his life on the battle- 
field The last battle of the war was fought by 

Indiana troops; the last gun fired at the enemy was by 
an Indianian, and the last Union soldier killed in battle 
was John J. Williams, of Company B, 34th Indiana 
Regiment." 

84. How the state has cared for the soldiers. Tak- 
ing care of the soldiers was a great duty of the state and 
the nation. Not only did the nation do this by pensions, 
but for the less fortunate ones a Soldiers' Home was 
estabHshed at Marion. Here the natural scenery is 
beautiful, and the grounds, with the great buildings, 
are kept in fine shape. But not all the old soldiers could 
be cared for at this home, so the question of having a 
State Home was agitated. The Grand Army of the 
Republic raised over five thousand dollars and obtained 
two hundred and fifty acres of land near Lafayette. 
This land and money were turned over to Indiana, and 



50 



HISTORY OF INDIANA 



the legislature gave seventy-five thousand dollars for the 
buildings for the Home. Later a home for the orphans 
of sailors and soldiers was established at Kingstown. 




THE SOLDIERS AND SAILORS MONUMENT, INDIANAPOLIS 



85. The soldiers' and sailors' monument. This monu- 
ment is located in the Governor's Circle in Indianapolis. 
A work of art, beautiful and symmetrical, it stands 
284^^ feet high, the figures representing Indiana in the 
Mexican and Civil wars. It cost the state over five hun- 
dred thousand dollars, and covers three acres. The top 
is reached by an elevator and stairway. The view from 
the top is magnificent. The monument is made of 
Indiana oolitic limestone. 

Indiana keeps green the memory of the boys who 
fell in the Civil War. At almost every county seat a 
soldiers' monument rears its head in honor of the men 
who fell for the Union. 



INDIANA IN THE WORLD WAR 51 

INDIANA IN THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 

86. Indiana in the Spanish-American War (1898). 

In 1898 came the Spanish-American War. The cause 
was Spain's treatment of the Cubans, but the immediate 
cause was the blowing up of our warship, the "Maine," in 
Havana Harbor. The call for troops was met promptly. 
Indiana's share was put at four regiments of infantry 
and tvv^o of artillery for the first call, and later the Presi- 
dent called for a second lot of men. This call placed 
Indiana's share at one regiment of infantry, two companies 
of colored troops, one company of engineers, and one for 
signal service. Indiana led all the states in getting her 
men ready to move. However, none of her regiments 
was sent to Cuba, but to other places. 

After the war came to an end a number of Indiana 
men joined the regular army to fight in the Philippines, 
and one full company went to those far-away islands. 

INDIANA IN THE WORLD WAR 

87. The United States enters the war. In the summer 
of 1 914 the World War began in Europe. The United 
States tried to remain neutral. But Germany killed so 
many Americans on the sea and did so many other things 
harmful to America that we declared a state of war 
existed between that country and the United States, 
April 6, 1917. 

88. Indiana does her part. The minute that war 
was declared Indiana went to work to do her full part. 
The government called for volunteers, and Indiana 
responded by sending 39,856 men. This was a larger 
number of volunteers, considering population, than any 
other state furnished. When the selective draft was 
set working, the young men of draft age were ordered 
before the draft boards. There they were examined 



52 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

and after a while went to the training camps. Then 
the scenes of the Civil War could be seen acted over 
again. On the appointed day the young men gathered 
at the county seat. There exercises were held, after 
which, headed by a band and accompanied by fathers 
and mothers and crowds of friends, they marched to the 
depot. There were tears and cheers as the train bore 
them away on their first step to the battlefields of Europe. 
The draft took 106,581 men out of the state for the army, 
and the navy took 5,516 men. 

89. At the front. One of the most famous Indiana 
organizations was the 150th Field Artillery. It was 
sent to France in October, 191 7, being among the first 
American troops sent across. It became a part of the 
French army and served in Lorraine. Afterwards it 
was moved to Champagne and later took part in the 
famous battle of Chateau-Thierry, where the American 
army crushed the German advance. After helping in 
the St. Mihiel offensive it took part in the great battle 
of the Meuse-Argonne. When the armistice was signed, 
the Rainbow Division (the 4 2d) and the 150 Field Artil- 
lery stood at the farthest point reached by any American 
forces. After the armistice the battery marched away 
to the Rhine as a part of the Army of Occupation. In 
April, 1 91 9, it returned home and was given a glorious 
welcome at Indianapolis by the whole state. 

Many thousands of Indiana soldiers were not sent 
abroad. They were kept at home to do important work. 
Others, by the thousand, were scattered through all the 
divisions of the great army in France. Some saw bloody 
service in the battle fine and others were just ready to 
take up the fighting when the war came to an end. Indi- 
ana has reason to be proud of them all. 



INDIANA IN THE WORLD WAR 53 

90. Indiana's dead. The total number of deaths 
among Indiana soldiers was 15 10. Of this number 645 
were killed in action and 270 died of wounds. Sickness 
took 461. These men made the supreme sacrifice for 
America and humanity. 

91. At home. While Indiana's men were taking 
part in the war, the people at home were working to help 
them win. Indiana mothers were knitting, preparing 
bandages, and saving food. Indiana school children 
were collecting money for the Red Cross, the Y. M. C. A., 
the Knights of Columbus, and the Jewish Relief Com- 
mittee. Indiana farmers planted big crops and worked 
long hours so our boys and the poor, starved people of 
Europe might be fed. The great factories ran day and 
night to make war supplies for the army. The colleges, 
universities, and normal schools turned themselves into 
training camps. Governor Goodrich, assisted by the 
State Council of Defense, toiled early and late to organize 
the people of Indiana for the great task. The churches 
carried a big part of the work in showing the people that 
it was a righteous war. Everyone seemed to be anxious 
to do what he could to help in winning the war. Indiana 
did her full share. 

92. The American Legion and the soldier's memorial. 
When the American soldiers came home from France they 
organized the American Legion and chose Indianapolis 
for its headquarters. At the session of the legislature 
in 1919 it was decided that the state should erect a memo- 
rial at IndianapoHs to her soldier heroes of the World 
War. More than two million dollars will be spent for 
this purpose. No doubt, it will rank in beauty and 
impressiveness with the Soldier's and Sailor's Monument 
which stands in the Circle. 

21 



54 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

INDIANA'S REPRESENTATION IN NATIONAL POLITICS 

93. Indiana in national politics. The first Indiana 
man to serve in the President's cabinet was Caleb B. 
Smith. He was made Secretary of the Interior by Presi- 
dent Lincoln. Another Secretary of the Interior was 
John P. Usher, also appointed by Lincoln when Caleb 
B. Smith was made United States Judge for Indiana. 
James N. Tyner was Assistant Postmaster-General to 
President Grant and President Hayes. 

Richard W. Thompson, the "Old Man Eloquent," was 
selected as Secretary of the Navy by President Hayes, 
who was charmed by his eloquence in the campaign of 
1840. General Walter Q. Gresham was a brave soldier. 
He was appointed Judge for Indiana by President Grant, 
made Postmaster-General by President Arthur, and in 
Cleveland's second term was made Secretary of State. 
In 1888, before the National Republican Convention, he 
led all other candidates for the nomination for the 
presidency, but he was defeated in the end. Hugh 
McCulloch served as Secretary of the Treasury under 
three presidents. 

After Governor Morton had served his state as chief 
executive he was sent to the United States Senate and 
remained there until his death (1877). While he was 
serving, another Indianian, Schuyler Colfax, Speaker of 
the House of Representatives, was nominated and elected 
Vice-President of the United States, on the ticket with 
General Grant. One of Indiana's most distinguished 
soldiers, Benjamin Harrison, had been elected Senator, 
and was promoted to the presidency of the republic 
(1888). One of our most eloquent young men, Albert 
J, Beveridge, was elected United States Senator. While 
he was serving, the Republican party again laid its hands 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 55 

Upon an Indianian — Charles W. Fairbanks — and elected 
him Vice-President with President Roosevelt. 

The Democratic party has had a brilliant array 
of Indiana talent in national poHtics. Thomas A. 
Hendricks, for many years the leader, was elected 
governor, then made a United States Senator, and then 
was taken from this position by being elected Vice-Presi- 
dent of the United States with Cleveland. Joseph E. 
McDonald, an able lawyer, was sent to the United States 
Senate. Michael C. Kerr was a Congressman for several 
terms, and was elected Speaker of the House of Repre- 
sentatives. Thomas R. Marshall was chosen Vice-Presi- 
dent on the ticket with Woodrow Wilson. 

Daniel W. Voorhees, "the Tall Sycamore of the 
Wabash," had a most distinguished career. For ten years 
he represented his district in the lower house of Congress, 
and was twenty years in the position of United States 
Senator. David Turpie served two terms in the Senate. 

Two speakers of the House of Representatives, six 
members of the President's cabinet, four Vice-Presidents, 
and one President is not a bad showing for a Middle West 
state. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 

94. Forest resources. The pioneers looked upon the 
forests as being in the way. Now Indiana is trying to 
save what remains of those giant trees that once graced 
her soil. Among the woods that have made the state 
famous are the white oak, the tulip or the poplar, the 
hickory, and the walnut. 

In 1900 it was estimated that fifty thousand people 
were engaged in wood industries and every year received 
fifteen million dollars in wages. In 1900 working in 
wood reached its height, and has since been declining. 



S6 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

Indianapolis has developed into a great center of the 
veneer business. 

95. Coal mines. Many often wondered what the 
people would do for heat when wood gave out. The 
vast coal beds were a partial answer. The area covered 
by coal deposits is about one-fifth of the state and lies 
in fourteen counties in the southwestern part of the state. 
In 1 91 8 over twenty-seven million tons of coal were 
mined by about twenty-seven thousand persons. While 
all the coal of the state is bituminous, it is classed . as 
three kinds: bituminous, block, and cannel. 

96. Natural gas. The people of Indiana have been 
prodigal in the use of natural gas. Grant, Madison, 
and Delaware counties furnished most. When it began 
to be turned to manufacturing purposes, factories in 
other parts of the state were attracted to the "gas belt." 
Glass factories and iron factories reaped a great harvest. 

The discovery of gas caused a great increase in the 
population of these counties. In Delaware County the 
population grew from thirty thousand in 1890 to fifty- 
one thousand in 19 10; in Grant from thirty-one thou- 
sand in 1890 to fifty-one thousand in 19 10; and in 
Madison from thirty-six thousand in 1890 to seventy 
thousand in 1900. In each case the population nearly 
doubled, and in the case of Madison County it came within 
two thousand of doubling in ten years. But, unfortu- 
nately, the waste of the gas for other purposes besides 
business has almost used up the supply. Many of the 
people have gone back to other parts of the state. 

97. Petroleum. The first well was sunk near Key- 
stone, Wells County, in 1889. This well belonged to 
the Northern Indiana Oil Company. The field grew, 
and in 1896 covered four hundred square miles. It 
grew still larger, and in 1914 this oil field produced 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 57 

over five hundred thousand barrels of oil and had over 
three thousand wells. 

The Princeton and Oakland City oil field in Gibson 
County and the Sullivan County field were developed 
later. Both were good producers. The newest region 
to begin yielding oil is the Pike County field near Peters- 
burg. The total yield of the state in 1918 was almost 
nine hundred thousand barrels. This shows a big 
decline; in the year 1900 the total product was over 
four milHon eight hundred thousand barrels. 

98. Building stone. Indiana ranks fifth among the 
states in the value of the building stone she produces. 
Besides the ordinary limestone used for building purposes, 
the reputation of Indiana rests upon her supply of oolitic 
or Bedford limestone. This stone is quarried in larger 
quantities in Lawrence and Monroe counties than any 
other place. It is a fine stone because it is soft when 
first quarried, and can be sawed or cut into any shape. 
Perhaps it is more widely used than any other kind of 
stone. In 191 7 seven million cubic feet were quarried. 

Many valuable clay beds are found scattered over the 
state. This fact, along with the presence of coal, explains 
why Indiana ranks sixth among the states in the clay- 
working industries. Clay and Vigo are the most impor- 
tant of the clay-working counties. Immense quantities 
of paving and building brick and tile of various kinds are 
made. A fine grade of potter's clay is found in Dubois, 
Martin, and Lawrence counties. 

99. Portland cement. The making of lime and 
cement has been from a very early day common to some 
counties along the Ohio. But the making of Portland 
cement has now largely taken its place. The material 
for this cement is almost unlimited. The largest factory 
is at Mitchell, which turns out over five thousand barrels 



58 HISTORY OF INDIANA 

a day. Portland cement is now taking the place of wood 
and iron in many kinds of structures. 

100. Manufactures. Our manufactures were of a very 
rustic kind when the work was almost all done in the 
home (pp. 1 6-1 8, 32-36), but by 1850 the work of fac- 
tories made up by far the greater part of the manu- 
factures. It amounted to nearly twenty million dollars 
then, but by 19 14 reached seven hundred and thirty mil- 
lion dollars. This output came from factories worth over 
six hundred and sixty-eight million dollars. These dif- 
ferent factories were engaged in the iron industry, foundry 
and machine-shop products, carriages and wagons, arti- 
ficial gas, agricultural implements, lumber and timber 
products, automobiles, furniture, and flour and grist- 
mill products. Indianapolis, South Bend, Fort Wayne, 
Evansville, and Terre Haute rank highest, Indianapolis 
leading with eight hundred and eighty-six manufacturing 
plants (19 1 4). The capital city ranks second only to 
Detroit in the manufacture of automobiles. South 
Bend ranks first in the making of carriages and wagons, 
and Evansville in furniture. It is said that the first 
automobile was invented in Kokomo. In 19 14 the whole 
number of persons engaged in manufacturing industry 
was over two hundred and thirty-three thousand. 

In the northwest corner of the state a great manu- 
facturing region has been developing since 1906. In 
that year the United States Steel Corporation founded 
the city of Gary. There it established a plant for the 
manufacture of steel. Other manufactures soon followed 
the opening of the steel company and in a little while 
the swamps and sand hills gave way to huge factories 
and a flourishing city. By 1920 Gary had a popula- 
tion of 55,378. 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 59 

The World War caused a great growth of manufactur- 
ing. The high wages paid by the factories drew thou- 
sands of workers from the country and the smaller 
towns to the big cities. This movement almost stripped 
the farms of hired labor and forced farmers to buy more 
machinery to take the place of labor. There are several 
counties in which the rural population is less than it was 
ten years ago. This is a very serious matter in connection 
with the food supply. Who is to feed the city workers? 

10 1. Indiana farms and farming. Indiana stands high 
in the percentage of her land that is used in farming, and 
in the average price per acre. In 19 13 Indiana raised 
over 160,000,000 bushels of corn; Tipton County led, 
producing 57.69 bushels per acre. Posey County led the 
state in wheat, over 1,140,000 bushels being the yield 
of that county alone. Corn and wheat are Indiana's 
best crops. 

Timothy and clover lead among the hay crops, with 
alfalfa as a rapidly increasing crop. The tomato crop 
is also increasing, the yield for 19 13 being over 125,000 
tons. The crop is mainly canned. Tipton County leads 
in tomatoes. In this same year over eight thousand 
acres were devoted to raising melons; Knox, Gibson, 
and Posey counties take the lead. 

Live stock has long been one of Indiana's chief 
products. In this the hog and the cow rank first. There 
are nearly two million hogs in the state, Rush County 
leading (1914). In this year over six hundred thousand 
dairy cattle were counted in Indiana, those for beef 
reaching a still higher figure. Allen County leads in 
the number of cows for milk. Over seven hundred and 
thirty thousand horses and mules belong to Indiana 
(19 14), Posey County leading. 



6o HISTORY OF INDIANA 

102. The change in farming. This age of invention 
has brought almost a complete change in our manner of 
farming. It is a long way from the iron moldboard and 
the shovel plow to the riding breaking plow, the riding 
cultivator, and the traction plow. A similar change has 
come over the harvest season. Our great-grandfathers 
used to bend their backs while wielding the hand sickle 
in the grain field or while cutting grass with a hand 
scythe. Now we ride a harvester or mower. 

103. The social result. The result of all this has been 
a wonderful change. Farming is no longer an occupation 
of drudgery, but one of pleasant work. The farmer has 
time to read and to think. He attends the Grange and 
the Institute, and is becoming a factor in the social 
affairs of his neighborhood and county. His children 
attend the township, town, or city high school. By aid 
of rural delivery, the telephone, and the automobile, he 
touches elbows with the great, busy world. He lives in 
the presence of his neighbors, no longer shut away from 
them. When he grows old or leaves the farm, he goes to 
the city and his son or a tenant takes his farm. In 1910 
it was estimated that a third of the farms in Indiana were 
in the hands of tenants. What will be the result? 

LITERARY INDIANA 

104. Historians. Among the first of Indiana writers 
of history stands John B. Dillon. Law was his profession, 
but he wrote the first important history of Indiana about 
1850. Mr. J. P. Dunn wrote The Massacres of the 
Mountains, and Indiana in the "American Common- 
wealth Series" (1888). He has been active in the Indiana 
Historical Association. John Clark Ridpath, a popular his- 
torian, for a long time a professor at De Pauw, published 



LITERARY INDIANA 6i 

his history of the United States, the Cyclopedia of Univer- 
sal History (1885), and has written other volumes. 

WilHam H. English, a native of Scott County, a 
statesman and a business man, has contributed two 
volumes on the Conquest of the Northwest (1895). The 
most exhaustive work on Indiana was written by William 
H. Smith — two large volumes. Cyrus W. Hodgin, a 
long-time professor in the State Normal and in Earlham 
College, produced a volume on Outline of Civil Govern- 
ment in Indiana (1903). JuHa Henderson Levering has 
written a sprightly volume on Historical Indiana, and 
Professor Logan Esary of Indiana State University has 
lately issued a volume on Indiana which, for accuracy 
of statement, ranks with the best. 

WilHam Dudley Foulke has written a fine biography 
of Indiana's war governor, OHver P. Morton, and John 
L. Griffiths has followed with a most interesting biography 
of President Benjamin Harrison. 

The Honorable John W. Foster wrote his Twelve Years 
of Diplomacy, and in doing so takes us out of our local 
situation into the great world of contending states. 
Hugh McCulloch wrote Men and Measures of Half a 
Century — -a most readable book. 

105. Orators. It is no easy task to select the orators of 
Indiana. Among them have been great speakers who may 
not be ranked as orators. Henry S. Lane was celebrated 
at the opening of the Civil War for his fiery eloquence. 
His joint canvass with Thomas A. Hendricks for the gov- 
ernorship was a famous contest. Lane was the better 
orator, but Hendricks the better debater. Thomas A. 
Hendricks and Oliver P. Morton were political orators 
of great power. As a rapid-fire speaker, John L. Griffiths 
probably excelled them all in his time. 



62 



HISTORY OF INDIANA 



Perhaps one of the most persuasive speakers was 
Albert G. Porter, who canvassed the state in 1880 against 
his opponent for governor. Probably Benjamin Harrison 
was one of the most powerful speakers Indiana ever 
produced. His addresses, made to visiting delegations 
when a candidate for the presidency, have seldom been 
surpassed for their logical power. "The Old Man 
Eloquent" is tribute enough to Richard W. Thompson, 
who so long wrote the platforms of his party that he was 
sadly missed when he passed away. 

For forty years Daniel W. Vorhees stood among the 
foremost orators of Indiana. He reached a nation-wide 
fame before he was elected to Congress. A Washington 
city judge once set aside the decision of a jury on the 
ground that the jurymen had been so stirred by Vorhees' 
eloquence that they had rendered a wrong decision! 

106. The novel writers. 
First among novelists is 
Edward Eggleston, author 
of The Hoosier School 
Master. Unfortunately, 
ignorant people, or those 
who have not traveled, 
have taken the characters 
as representative of the 
people of Indiana. It is 
a reflection on the people 
who so judge the char- 
acters of The Hoosier 
School Master. 

The brave old soldier, 
General Lew Wallace, gave us among other stories Ben- 
Hur, a Tale of the Christ. MilHons of copies have been 




JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY 



LITERARY INDIANA 63 

sold, and the novel has been translated into every language 
of Europe, into Arabic, and into the Japanese language. 
It has also been dramatized. 

Maurice Thompson, another Indianian, wrote several 
charming books, but his Alice of Old Vincennes leads 
them all. 

Charles Major wrote When Knighthood Was in Flower, 
a charming story of the Middle Ages, and Booth Tark- 
ington, among many other books, produced The Gentleman 
from Indiana, a novel almost everybody has read. 

Meredith Nicholson, a newspaper man, has written 
much, but among his best is The Hoosiers. 

One woman must be admitted to the hst of noted 
Indiana authors — Mrs. Gene Stratton Porter, a naturaHst 
and writer of note. A Girl of the Limherlost is perhaps 
her most charming story. 

107. The poets. Indiana has produced her share of 
the writers of poetry. The true poetic fire burns in the 
verses of Sara T. Bolton, Mary H. Catherwood, Rose 
Hartwick Thorpe, Joaquin Miller, John Hay, and others. 
But greatest among Indiana poets is James Whitcomb 
Riley. He sings for young and old, and all love his songs. 

For several years Riley made his home in Indianapolis, 
living on his famous Lockerbie Street. For a number 
of years his birthday has been celebrated in the schools 
of the state, and in Indianapolis great meetings have been 
addressed in his honor by noted men. But Riley's name 
and fame have long since gone far beyond his native state 
or even the United States. Indiana, while cherishing 
him for her own, is proud to have a man whom all the 
world loves. 



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